The Logic and Psychology of Problem-Solving and Goal Attainment, (A free e-book,with sound recordings, on a Practical Methodology of Attaining Solutions and Goals) By David Alderoty, October, 2008

This Book and Related Concepts

Each section of this book presents a set of topics. Each topic is written as an independent article, which includes background information. The individual topics or articles should be understandable as independent units, and some of these articles explain unique problem solving methodologies in detail. However, the individual articles collectively describe a unified general problem solving methodology, which I am calling: The General Problem Solving Methodology

This methodology actually consists of a number of individual methodologies that I devised or compiled.

The individual subtopics are divisions of the articles, and are not understandable as individual units. The subtopics represent a progression of ideas forming the article, and they usually relate to or refer to previous subtopics in the article.

To truly understand the utility of the methods and theories this e-book contains, you should read the entire book. The book essentially provides a set of diverse tools to deal with the challenges of all types of problems and goals. Reading selected portions of the book will provide you with an incomplete set of tools, which nevertheless will probably be quite useful and interesting.

This book was written with the assumption that the reader has at least intermediate computer knowledge and skills, and is familiar with the Windows operating system, the Internet, and word processing software. If the reader does not have the required computer knowledge and skills, it will be necessary to study the above, in order to fully understand all of the material in this book.

There are many Internet websites, books and courses that provide excellent instruction on computers, the Internet, and word processing software.

The individual articles in this book essentially comprise a complete course on problem solving, with practical and theoretical information. The beginning of the book presents simpler ideas, but as the book progresses more complex ideas are presented. A number of basic ideas are explained or presented somewhat differently in different articles in this book. Some of these basic ideas are defining the problem, creating plans to solve the problem, creativity, the writing process, the trial and error process, experimentation, funding, practice, learning and study.

This booklet does not contain very much on the conventional problem-solving and creativity techniques, which are widely available in the literature. If I wrote about all of these techniques and related theories this book would be well over 10,000 pages. In addition, many of the conventional problem-solving and creativity techniques are not very effective when applied to real world problems.

The headings in the table of contents consist of three levels. The first level is the section, the second is the topic, and the third is the subtopic. The table of contents, and the three hierarchical levels, will give you a picture of each section, as well as the entire book.

Section-1: Background Information Needed: Basic and Creative Problem Solving, the Computer, the Internet, and Definitions

A Very Important Topic: The Optimum Thinking Strategies of a Problem Solver and the General Problem Solving Methodology Suggests a New Discipline Focused On Obtaining Solutions, Goals and the Best Possible Alternatives

Subtopic: What is the Best Thinking Strategy for the Ideal Problem Solver: Positive Thinking, Realistic Thinking, Negative Thinking?

Note this subtopic presents a summary of some very important ideas about problem solving, and goal attainment, in a unique format. Many of these ideas will be discussed in detail throughout the book.

What is the best thinking strategy for the ideal problem solver: positive, realistic, or negative thinking? The best thinking strategy for an ideal problem solver is none of the above. The ideal problem solver anticipates obstacles, and failures, and then takes action to avoid the adverse outcomes. However, the ideal problem solver assumes that he cannot control everything, but he tries his best to do so. Each time the problem solver encounters an obstacle in the problem solving process, she asks the question: How can I eliminate this obstacle or circumvent it? Are there other ways that I can obtain my solution or goal? Each time the ideal problem solver encounters a true failure, he or she evaluates the situation. What caused this failure? What are all the factors that contributed to this failure? How can I repeat my efforts and succeed. Is there an alternative goal or solution that will be easier to obtain?

The ideal problem solver always looks for and anticipates negative outcomes, and tries to prevent them from occurring. The ideal problem solver also tries to anticipate opportunities and positive outcomes, and tries to maximize the chances of their occurrence. When confronted with opportunities, he tries to make the most of it.

The ideal problem solver is aware that her actions can inadvertently cause problems. Thus, the ideal problem solver tries to understand all the possible cause and effect sequences that might take place as a result of a problem solving effort. He is prepared to change strategies and methods, and correct any unanticipated adverse results stemming directly or indirectly from the problem solving effort.

The ideal problem solver is NOT limited by her knowledge, skills and abilities. This is because she studies and learns about each problem he works on. In addition, she works with experts, technicians, organizations, and anyone else that can provide assistants, when she is trying to solve a problem. The ideal problem solver does not look at any problem from a single discipline. He sees all problems as multidisciplinary challenges, which requires study, experts, and technicians from diverse fields.

The ideal problem solver searches for information, ideas, creative solutions, equipment, experts, technicians, organizations, funding, and anything else that can be used to solve a problem. The ideal problem solver does one or more of the following:

· Solving all or part of the problem herself

· Obtaining assistance from anyone that can help with the problem

· Solving the problem with expert assistance

· Organizing and managing equipment, information, funding, and a team of experts and technicians to get a problem solved

· Obtaining assistance from one or more organizations to get a problem solved

· Employing one or more knowledgeable individuals to organize and manage equipment, information, funding, and a team of experts, and technicians to get a problem solved

· Organizing information or a plan of study and practice for himself and/or for all the people working on the project, to get a problem solved.

Subtopic: The Above Subtopic and all the Methods and Strategies in this Book Suggests a New Specialty or Discipline that Deals with Obtaining Solutions, Goals and Optimum Alternatives when Solutions and Goals Cannot be Obtained

As you read through this book, it will become apparent that problem solving and goal attainment can be considered a separate specialty, discipline, subject or course of study. The subject of problem solving is multidisciplinary in nature, and from this perspective the problem solver would be a unique occupational role or service. The role of a problem solver as a service provider, would involve learning about the clients problem, and searching for components, needed to solve the problem, such as information, equipment, materials, experts, technicians, funding, etc. The problem solver would be involved with organizing and managing everything that is needed to solve a problem. The problem solver would communicate, in written and spoken language, with everyone that is involved with the problem solving process.

That is the problem solver can be involved with obtaining: funding, a team of experts and technicians, and everything else needed to obtain a solution or goal. This could include documenting the problem or goal in written language, such as for experts and technicians, for grant proposals, and feasibility studies.

One of the primary roles of the problem solver would involve creating a plan of action to obtain a solution or goal. With complex problems, this would involve working with various experts in efforts to create the best possible plan.

The problem solver would generally be involved with extensive study involving detailed technical information, each time she is working on a problem or goal, because to optimally organize and manage a problem solving effort, it is necessary to become a technical expert. When managers without advanced technical knowledge try to manage experts working on complex problems, severe blunders are often made, because it is necessary to have technical knowledge to evaluate the problem, the alternatives, and the experts.

Another primary role of the problem solver, especially when working with an individual on personal problems, and goals, would involve an assessment of needs and values of the client. As you read through this book, it will become apparent that what constitutes an acceptable solution to a problem, or a desirable goal, or an acceptable alternative, is determined by the values of the individual(s) involved.

The problem solver works somewhat similar to a counselor or psychotherapist, but the difference would be that the role of the problem solver is not limited to counseling, psychology, or any other discipline. Counselors and psychotherapists may provide referrals to other experts. However, when the problem solver suggests specialized expert assistance, he monitors and evaluates their performance in the problem solving process.

Most personal problems and goals involve psychology. This is also true to varying degrees with most business problems and industrial projects. However, it is very rare when any problem or goal is strictly psychological in nature. Most problems and goals cannot be understood or resolved from the discipline of psychology, simply because there are usually a large number of other factors that are not psychological in nature. Of course, there are many types of personal and industrial problems that are primarily psychological in nature, but there is usually financial, cultural, social, technological, and physiological factors involved also. This can eliminate the possibility of solving the problem with only psychological methods. All of this suggests that there is truly a need for the new type of discipline and service provider that I am suggesting.

Very Important Topic: The Fundamentals of Problem Solving And Goal Attainment.

Generally speaking, all problem solving, involves a goal, which can be a solution to a difficulty, or a desirable or pleasurable objective. Most problem solving strategies require defining or delineating the problem and the goal. This essentially involves setting a goal that relates to the problem. Then a plan is created to obtain the goal. The plan generally consists of a series of steps, or procedures that will hopefully lead to the goal. More sophisticated problem solving methodologies involve many additional steps, but they will involve the three primary components, which are the problem, the goal, and the plan. This basic concept can be represented by three questions, which are:

1. What is the problem?

2. What is the goal (or solution)?

3. What is the plan to obtain the goal?

These very fundamental concepts, by themselves, will not help you very much with complex problem solving. However, these basic concepts are necessary to understand the complex methodologies discussed in this book, which will help you with difficult problems and challenging goals.

Topic: Factors That Interfere with Personal Solutions and Goals

There are many factors that interfere with personal goal attainment, and problem solving. You are likely to encounter these factors whether you are working on your own objectives or trying to assist someone else. The most common factors are presented below, in approximate order of importance. Many of these factors are discussed in more detail in different contexts and subtopics throughout this book.

The individual with the problem or goal cannot follow the steps, or consistently follow the steps, needed to obtain a solution or goal, because of various emotional factors. Usually, the individual will understand the steps needed to obtain the solution or goal, but he cannot bring himself to follow the steps, or to carry out the required procedures consistently. The cause of this problem is usually partly related to habits. We develop responses and strategies to deal with the world that become habitual, and it is very often extremely difficult to change these responses and strategies even if they are highly dysfunctional. Some examples of these responses and strategies, are anxiety responses, anger responses, lashing out in anger, avoidance of unpleasant or stressful work, avoidance of physical activity and exercise, avoiding paperwork including schoolwork, poor study habits, poor eating habits, overeating leading to obesity, smoking, oversleeping, under sleeping, excessive or unjustified arguing with people, tendency to get upset at the slightest sign of failure and give up, various types of self-destructive behavior patterns, and dysfunctional problem solving strategies. There are of course a large number of other possible examples. However, the point is: these dysfunctional habitual responses and strategies CAN inhibit the new strategies, methods and related steps that we must follow to obtain our solution or goal. In addition, efforts to obtain a solution or goal are often very frustrating, time-consuming, and may cause some emotional frustration and discomfort, which can be difficult to tolerate, for many people.

Often, the above emotional components are insurmountable, and the individual might verbalize various excuses, such as I do not have the time to do that, I am too busy for that, I do not believe that will work, I am not capable of doing that, that is to difficult, etc. The individual may also agree on an intellectual level that the goal or solution in question is certainly desirable. He may also agree on an intellectual level that he must apply himself, and carry out the new strategies, methods and related steps to obtain the solution or goal. However, on an emotional level the individual may disagree with his own intellect, and may be unwilling to carry out the new strategies, methods and related steps to obtain the solution or goal. This is more likely to happen when there is some discomfort associated with the effort needed to obtain an objective. 1111111fixSSaturday, November 08, 2008 The best solution for this type of difficulty is to make repeated attempts to follow the required methods and related steps that are needed to obtain the solution or goal. When this is done, most of the initial attempts might be unsuccessful or only partly successful. However, if the attempts are continuously repeated, after a period of weeks or months many improvements, or successful outcomes, will usually be obtained. If this is continuously practiced, eventually the new strategies and methods needed to obtain a solution or goal will become less disagreeable, and habitual, with more successful outcomes. When this is done properly, most people will eventually solve at least some of their very difficult problems and obtain some of their very challenging goals. However, it might require many months or years of effort, and it might involve many repeated failures, until success is obtained. Right attitude and techniques prolonged endeavors of this type can be carried out in a way that is pleasantly stimulating and challenging. (A number of subtopics in this book deal with habits, which offers additional solutions to this difficulty.)

The second major barrier to personal problem solving, is a trap- like-situation that often develops with personal difficulties and goals. The trap-like-situations generally involve inhibiting factors from other problems or from the general life situation that the individual is in. The following examples will clarify this idea. If a minimum wage worker, with a sixth-grade education wants to improve his circumstances by obtaining a college degree, to improve his job opportunities and financial condition, he will usually be trapped. He may have to work 40 hours a week or more, and this will make it very difficult for him to attend any type of school, study and pass examinations. In addition, it is unlikely that a trade school or a college would accept him without a high school diploma. Another example is an individual that needs a medical procedure, and cannot work full-time because of a medical condition, but they do not have adequate insurance, and cannot pay for the procedure, because they are to ill to work full-time. Still another example is an overweight young man or woman that eats excessively because he or she is depressed, which is primarily caused by medical and social problems stemming from being overweight.

There are many more possible examples, but generally most personal problems have at least some degree of a trap- like-quality, but not necessarily to the extent illustrated in the above examples.

The solution to this situation is to try to ease out of the adverse set of circumstances in a series of stages. For example, the minimum wage worker, could engage in self-study, and attend night school to improve his literacy, and academic skills to obtain a high school equivalency diploma. This might take a number of years and involve a number of failures, but with persistence, success would probably be obtained. If the individual truly became more knowledgeable and literate, he could probably obtain a higher paying job, apply to trade school or college. When he is ready to apply to college, he would be eligible for financial aid, and student loans, and he would not have to work full-time while he is in college. In the case of the depressed overweight individual, an exercise program, coupled with psychotherapy, and psychiatric treatment for the depression and the overeating, with antidepressants, might eventually solve the problem.

In general, escaping from trap like situations, such as the above examples, involves careful thinking, planning and figuring out a way of easing out of the adverse situation. This usually must be carried out in a series of stages, which will probably involve many failures, before success is obtained.

The difficulty with many trap-like problematic situations is there is often no apparent solution. Escaping from the problematic trap-like-situation can involve a very imperfect and incomplete plan in the very beginning, which can be improved after working on the problem for a period of time. However, with many personal problems the trap-like-components are much less severe than the above examples. In general, it is useful to evaluate all problems and goals, to assess the degree of trap like circumstances that may be involved. This will allow for devising methods of eliminating the difficulties, usually in a series of stages.

Probably the third most important difficulty in solving problems and obtaining goals is lack of money. Most problem solving and goal attainment efforts are very expensive. For example, obtaining a college degree, purchasing a new home, moving to a new locality, can cost thousands of dollars.

This situation is discussed in detail in another section of this book, and briefly the solution is to find various sources of funding, such as government and private grants, special loans, obtain additional employment, and/or start a savings plan.

Lack of time is often used as an excuse, but it can very often be a valid difficulty that interferes with problem solving and goal attainment. Very often people have poor time management skills, which can involve inadequate priority setting. For example, excessive television watching, spending an excessive amount of time socializing, spending excessive lengths of time on housework and spending excessive amounts of time shopping. There are many more examples, but generally these activities can be greatly reduced or even eliminated, which can be unacceptable or difficult for some individuals. This can make many goals such as completing college impossible. In addition, employment can take up a considerable amount of time for most people.

The solution to this difficulty is obviously setting priorities, and eliminating unnecessary activities. The importance of an activity can be assessed by asking your self the question, what impact this activity would have if I reduced it, or eliminated it, in one week from now, one month from now, one year from now, five years from now. If the answers to these questions are essentially zero impact, the activity in question might not be very important, and can possibly be reduced or eliminated. There are generally many activities that can be done quicker, more efficiently, if you carefully evaluate the situation. Another good solution is to allocate fixed time intervals to work on your problem or goal, such as studying college work everyday, from 6 PM to 10 PM, which allows plenty of time for other activities, such as employment, housekeeping, and recreation. Another example is goals related to physical exercise, can be done during recreational time, such as exercising while watching television.

A major difficulty that people often face with problems and goal attainment efforts is confusion about relevant information. There is usually a tremendous amount of contradictory information (or information that appears to be contradictory) in relation to many personal problems and goals. One of the best examples in this regard is nutrition and weight control. People, without adequate knowledge of nutrition, are generally extremely confused. They switch from one dieting strategy to another in an attempt to lose weight. This can include misinterpretation of the various diet concepts, and in proper attempts to lose weight with various diet plans.

This problem can be dealt with by prolonged study of information that has been scientifically evaluated. If the above appears to be one of your difficulties, you can ask experts what is good reading material to study. For example, you can ask your physician, if he recommends any books on diet and nutrition. Consulting experts for assistance and information can also be very helpful.

In addition, careful evaluation of information and methods can be quite useful. Evaluations of successful results generally can be evaluated based on time intervals of one to three years, with some exceptions of course. Wednesday, November 05, 2008ddddddddFor example, if you ask a friend if a specific diet, exercise program, or medical procedure is successful or beneficial, ask about relevant time intervals. If they state that they have been on diet-X for two months, and it is excellent, their statement has little validity. However, if they state that they have been on diet-X for two years, and lost all their excess weight, their statements have at least some validity. However, the most important strategy to use when you are unsure of what is really valid information or procedures is to employ the trial and error process to determine what works in your individual case.

Sometimes a problem is so difficult that the individual involved, simply does not feel it is worth the cost in time, money, and effort to make an attempt to obtain a solution or goal. This is a value judgment, and it can be quite sensible, for some individuals, and some objectives. However, it can also be an example of poor judgment and/or a psychological disorder, when the problem involves life-threatening habits, or when giving up will lead to severe financial or social problems, or other severe consequences. (Mental health and mental illness are based on value judgments, but most experts would probably agree that any behavior pattern that is severely self-destructive can be classified as a psychological disorder in most cases.) For example, if an individual gives up hopes, or goals, of opening his own business, or buying a second home in the wilderness for vacations, the decision is almost certainly rational. However, if an individual gives up on a severe life-threatening overweight problem, or a life-threatening addiction problem, the decision is most likely the result of poor judgment and/or a psychological disorder.

When decisions to give up are rational, there is no problem and no solution is needed. However, it is always a good idea to keep an open mind, and goals that are too difficult at one point in time, might be easier at a later point in time. Of course, they may also be more difficult at a later point in time. Nevertheless giving up can be a sensible strategy in many cases.

However, the second category of problems discussed above, (involving life-threatening habits or problems that threaten the financial or social well-being of the individual) presents a serious challenge that requires at least an attempt at a solution. Part of the solution should include professional assistance from mental health providers, and a general effort to alleviate psychological difficulties. This should be coupled with ongoing efforts to alleviate or solve the life-threatening or otherwise destructive problem.

Topic: Creative Instructional Questioning Method, and the Writing Process

Subtopic: What is Creative Instructional Questioning?

In the previous topic three questions were asked, in such a way as to convey some general ideas, and to stimulate thinking. These questions were: What is the problem? What is the goal (or solution)? What is the plan to obtain the goal? These questions can be answered many different ways depending on the circumstances. Some other examples of questions in this category are: What are the worst five experiences you ever had? What are the best five experiences you ever had? What makes an experience good for you? What makes an experience bad for you? What is the biggest success you have had, and what caused it? What is the biggest failure you ever had, and what caused it? What are the factors that help you succeed? What are the factors that interfere with your success or cause you to fail? Can you list all the factors that help you succeed, and all the factors that help you fail? What are five of your worst problems, and what are all the possible ways that you might be able to solve them? There are many more examples of questions of this type in various sections of this book.

I have found that a series of questions of the type presented above, sometimes coupled with instructions, and/or explanatory text, can be a very effective way of stimulating the thought processes of readers. It is also a good way of facilitating and guiding creative thinking. This is especially useful for explaining general problem solving procedures, and for constructing certain types of problem solving templates. 1111112345Monday, November 03, 200809:37:07---- I am calling this technique: Creative Instructional Questioning. I am also calling it CIQ method, or CIQ. I am calling the questions Creative Instructional Questions.

The CIQ method is primarily for guiding and stimulating creative thinking, and to convey general instructions, especially for problem solving. Specifically, the CIQ method involves a series of related questions that are designed to guide the reader’s thinking within certain parameters, especially in relation to creative problem solving. That is unlike conventional questions that have one correct answer, CIQ involves questions that are designed to facilitate innovative assessments, and the questions can be interpreted and answered many different ways, but within certain limits. The series of questions may be combined with various instructions, such as how to perform various steps or procedures, especially in relation to the problem solving process. CIQ method can also be useful to convey certain general ideas, especially when the goal is to stimulate the readers thought processes.

Subtopic: Creative Instructional Questioning with the Writing Process is a Very Effective Problem Solving Technique?

The Creative Instructional Questioning method can also be thought of as a problem solving method. Specifically, when you have a problem, you can create a series of Creative Instructional Question similar to the above, which relate to your problem or goal. Then try to answer them, which ideally should be done in writing, with word processor software, on a computer screen. Providing details in your answers, including explanations, will help you develop insight and stimulate your creative thinking even more. With this method, the more you write, the more you will gain. This is not difficult writing, because you do not have to worry about other people understanding it. You do not have to be concerned about grammar and spelling. The only important idea here is that you understand your writing. If you decide, for some reason, that you want to show your creative thoughts to others, you can always revise your writing at a later point in time.

The following topic employs the Creative Instructional Questioning method and the writing process. This topic will further clarify the CIQ method, and illustrate how it can be used for problem solving.

Topic: Creative Problem Solving & the Writing Process

The following series of questions will guide you through the creative problem solving process. These are Creative Instructional Questions, as explained in the previous topic. These questions should be answered in writing, on a computer screen, with word processor software (such as Microsoft Word). As explained above, the more details you provide in your answers the better. The more you write with this method the better. As previously stated, keep in mind that you are writing to stimulate your own thought processes, and you do not have to be concerned about other people understanding your writing. You do not have to worry about spelling or grammar. If you decide to show your writing to others, you can always revise it, at a later point in time.

Any of the questions that are presented below, should be modified if they do not relate to your objective, or if you do not understand them. As you read through these questions, you should also create your own Creative Instructional Questions that relate to your specific problem or goal.

1. What is the nature of your problem? What are all the possible causes of your problem? List all the possible causes that you can think of. When you complete your list, rearrange it by placing the most likely causes on top of your list and the less likely causes at the bottom of your list, in descending order of importance.

2. What are all the contributing factors to your problem? List all the factors that may be contributing to your problem. These factors do not have to be the original or primary cause of the difficulty. When you complete your list, rearrange it so that the most significant factors are on top of your list, and the least significant are at the bottom of your list, in descending order of importance.

3. What are all the possible solutions to your problem? List all the possible solutions to your problem. When you complete your list rearrange it so the best solutions are on top of your list and the less desirable solutions are at the bottom of your list. Then create another list by rearranging the possible solutions based on the relative degree of feasibility of the solutions. Place the easiest solutions on top of your list, and the more difficult solutions at the bottom of your list.

4. Do you have enough information to devise a plan, involving a series of steps, to solve your problem? If not, what components would you need to help you create and carry out a feasible plan to solve your problem? Would expert assistance, such as from a physician, a lawyer, an instructor, or guidance counselor, help you? Are there any organizations that can possibly help you with your problem? Would money help you create and carry out a plan to solve your problem? Would additional information be helpful in creating a feasible plan to solve your problem? Would equipment, tools or materials be helpful for your problem solving efforts? List all the components including equipment, tools, and assistance that you would need to create and carry out a successful plan, to solve your problem. How can you obtain these components? List all the possible ways that you can obtain the resources, equipment and assistance you need to solve your problem.

5. Can you now create a plan that will lead to a solution? If not, create the best possible plan, and start working on your problem, and as you gain experience and information, you can improve your plan.

6. If you created a plan to solve your problem, what are all the possible ways that you can improve your plan. List all the possible ways of improving your plan, and place the most feasible methods on top of your list.

7. How can you increase the chances of obtaining an optimum solution to your problem? List all the possible ways that you know of. (In general, you must use the trial and error process, seek assistance from experts, and study information about your problem from various sources, to successfully solve it.)

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8. If you cannot solve your problem, what would be a good alternative to a solution? List all the possible alternatives to a solution, or all the possibilities that will improve your problematic situation. Then rearrange the list in order of feasibility, with the most feasible alternative on top of the list. Then create a second list, with the best alternative on the top of your list, and the least desirable alternatives on the bottom of your list. Keep in mind that the most desirable alternative can sometimes be unrealistic, excessively difficult, or less feasible then less desirable alternatives. However, this is certainly not always the case. Very often, the most desirable alternative is the most realistic and best choice.

9. When you complete your problem solving efforts answer the following questions: Did you succeed in your efforts? Did you partially succeed in your efforts? If not, what are all the possible causes for the failure? List the possible causes in order of importance. Then try to obtain more information and assistance, and consider the possibility of repeating your efforts to solve your problem or obtain your goal.

The above problem solving concept will be presented in various sections in this book in more detail, and combined with other techniques.

A Very Important Topic: Mastering New Strategies, Technologies, Methods and Tools

A very important general principle that applies to most strategies, technologies, methods, and tools is when they are first utilized they are often less efficient than older ways of doing things. The older ways usually appear to be simpler, more efficient, and more logical because we are more experienced with them. When dealing with anything that is new often requires learning and a psychological adjustment. When we are faced with new procedures or equipment we may notice a significant drop in our efficiency, until we master the needed skills and adjust to the new situation. When faced with anything new we should be prepared to practice and employ the trial and error process to help us learn and adjust to the new ways. All of this simply means that it is necessary to use new strategies, methods, technologies and tools for awhile before making final judgment. All of these ideas apply to this book, because it offers new strategies, technologies, methods, and tools for problem solving and goal attainment.

Topic The Computer and the Internet in Relation to this Book

>>>>>>>Sunday, October 19, 200810/19/2008 12:48:35 PM

Subtopic: An Alternative to the Above. Good Problem Solving Strategies Provide Many Alternatives

Good problem solving plans and techniques provide alternatives, which is a very important concept mentioned throughout this book. Thus, I will provide an excellent alternative for the software mentioned above, which is OpenOffice.org 2.0. OpenOffice.org is an excellent word processor that will open any Microsoft Word document, including the electronic version of this book. OpenOffice.org is very easy to use, and it functions similar to Word. OpenOffice.org has a huge number of features, and it appears to be as good as Microsoft Word. OpenOffice.org has almost all of the features that Word has, including a spell checker that indicates errors as you type by underlining in red. OpenOffice.org is combined in a free software package, which includes all the features of Microsoft Office. This includes spreadsheets, presentations, and tools to insert photographs, create drawings, diagrams, and mathematical equations.

Many of the techniques in this book require a computer and word processor software. If you do not have a high-quality word processor you can obtain one of the best, OpenOffice.org, for free. One of the very few advantages Microsoft Word has over OpenOffice.org is popularity. This could be important if you are searching for employment, because many jobs require a high degree of experience with Microsoft Word. If this does not apply to you, I suggest you do not purchase any word processor software, and use the OpenOffice.org.

OpenOffice.org does not stop working after a predefined trial period, and it can be used for commercial purposes. You can make as many free copies as you want, and distribute it to friends, family, and business colleagues, according to its open source license agreement. Even if you have Microsoft Word, you should obtain this software package. To obtain OpenOffice.org and its related software package for spreadsheets, and presentations, click on this link: www.openoffice.org If you are using the hard copy of this book type the above into your address bar and press Enter.

Subtopic: Additional Information on Computerized Links

This book is written in the form of an electronic book. This format is often called an E-book, ebook, or Ebook. One of the primary advantages of an E-book is computerized links, which can be incorporated directly into the text. There are a number of different types of links that can be added to an electronic document, such as hyperlinks, icons, and embedded documents, and many variations of the above. Links can be used to activate software on your computer from an electronic document. Links can be used to open other documents, activate web pages on the Internet, download software, connect to other computers, dial the telephone, and in theory can be used to operate any type of device that can be controlled by a computer, even if it is thousands of miles from the electronic document that contains the controlling links.

The most comment type of link is the hyperlink. Hyperlinks are widely used on the Internet, such as http://www.google.com

Another variation of hypertext is used for e-mail addresses, such as the following hypothetical e-mail address: asrtrrr@ddd.cds The first link will take you to the Google web site and search engine, and the hypothetical e-mail address will activate your e-mail software.

In Microsoft Word, and in many other word processor programs, to create an Internet hyperlink you only have to type the link, and press the Enter key. The software will figure out that you want an active Internet hyperlink, by recognizing www. For e-mail links the software will recognize @, and assume you are writing an e-mail address. This means you can simply type any Internet address in a Microsoft Word document, and it will automatically take you to the website, if you click on it with the mouse.

However, there are often mechanisms built in to the software that restricts activation of hyperlinks. This is for security purposes and to prevent the accidental activation of links while working in a document. In Microsoft Word, it is usually necessary to press the Ctrl key while left clicking with the mouse. However, if you click on Tools, Option and Edit, you will see a box with the words Use CTRL + Click to follow hyperlink. If there is a check mark placed in that box it will be necessary to use the Ctrl key and the mouse to activate hyperlinks. If you remove the check from the box it will not be necessary to use the Ctrl key. However, this box is usually checked, by default, and in less it is unchecked, it is generally necessary to press the Ctrl key while clicking the mouse to activate hyperlinks, in Microsoft Word.

Hyperlinks can also be used to open documents and activate software on your computer. When hyperlinks are used for this purpose it is often necessary to edit them if you make any changes in your computer that affect the location of relevant documents or software. This same idea applies to web sites also, if they change their web address. That is if the address of any component hyperlinked to a document changes, the link becomes useless, unless it is re-established, by applying it to the new address. How to do this is explained in the following paragraphs. However, first it is necessary to explain how hyperlinks to documents and software can be created.

In Microsoft Word you can create hyperlinks to other documents and software, by first placing the cruiser in the location where you want the hyperlink. (Alternatively, you can select text to use as the hyperlink.) Then click on word Insert and the menu will open. Then scroll down to Hyperlink and click on it. Then another menu will open, which allows access to all of the files and software on your computer. Select the relevant software or document, and click on OK. Then you should have a hyperlink in your document.

Alternatively you can create hyperlinks in Microsoft Word by simultaneously pressing Ctrl and k key, and a menu will open, which will provide access to all your files on your computer. Select the file you what to link to, and click OK.

When a hyperlink fails to work, such as when the address has changed the hyperlink can be re-established by repeating the above. Alternatively, you can place the cruiser on the link, and left click with the mouse, and a menu will open. Click on Edit Hyperlink and another menu will open, which will provide access to all of the files on your computer. Select the relevant file and click OK.

Icons can be hyperlinks that consist of some type of graphic, such as a photograph or sketch. To create a hyperlink with a graphic, select the graphic, and follow the same procedures described above for creating hyperlinks with words.

Another way of creating icons directly in a document is to cut and paste the conventional Windows icons directly into your document. This method does not always work well, but it does not cause any harm when it fails. A better way of placing icons into a Microsoft Word document is to use the special paste function. This involves placing the cruiser where you want the icon pasted in your document, then selecting the icon with the Windows copy function. However, before pasting it, click on Edit, and a menu will open. Then scroll down to the words Paste Special and click on it. Then a dialog box will open. Scroll down to the type of object you want to paste, such as a Microsoft Word document, an Excel worksheet, a Shortcut Object, a file. If you are not sure of the correct selection, select file, or you can use trial and error with the other settings. In addition, in this box place a check mark on Paste Link, and a check mark on Display as Icon. Then you can paste the icon into your document, by clicking on OK.

A Very important note: Conventional Windows icons placed in a document, require a double-click to activate, in the same way that they are activated on the Windows desktop. However, if an icon is created with a hyperlink and a drawing or photograph it requires only one click, and usually the Ctrl key as well if it is in Microsoft Word.

Embedded documents are another type of link, which can be very useful and interesting. For example, the following embedded document was created with Excel, and if you click on it, you can change the numbers (n, k, A, and B) and it will perform the indicated calculus computation automatically, if you have Excel on your computer.

There are a number of ways that embedded documents can be inserted into a word processor or program. In Microsoft Word, you can create embedded documents, similar to the method described above for creating icons, but do not select Paste Link, and Display as Icon. Specifically, the steps are: place the cruiser where you want the embedded document, then select the document you want to embed with the copy function. After this, click on Edit, Paste Special, and then select the type of object you want to paste, such as an Excel worksheet, or a Microsoft Word document, and then click OK. If you select the wrong type of object, you might end up with an image that does not function as intended. If this happens, you can delete the object, and try again.

There are other ways of creating icons and embedded documents in Microsoft Word, and in many other word processors. The alternative method in Microsoft Word, involves placing the cruiser where you want the document or icon placed. Then click on Insert, and a menu will open. Then, scroll down to Object and click on it. After this another menu will open with a list of objects that can be inserted into Microsoft Word. Scroll down the list until you find the object you want to insert. Then click OK, if you want an embedded object. If you want an icon instead of an embedded object, place a check mark in the box that states: Display as Icon.

There is a problem with hyperlinks, icons and sometimes embedded objects that result when a document was created on one computer, and is being viewed on another computer. Because of differences in configuration of the software on different computers, hyperlinks, icons, and occasionally embedded objects do not function. Part of the reason this often happens is the addresses of the files are different on each computer. This can be corrected by editing or re-creating the links on the viewing computer.

This book contains hyperlinks, icons and embedded objects, which may or may not work on your computer, as a result of the above. Most likely, some of the links will function on your computer, and some will not. However, the primary idea here is that the links should be edited on the viewing computer, so they function properly. How to do this was explained above.

I have found that embedded objects and icons that relate to specific documents that are recorded on the same CD as the primary document are usually quite reliable. However, hyperlinks very often have to be edited or re-created on each computer, especially when they relate to the location of software on the computer. However, hyperlinks and icons that relate to websites and specific web pages, usually function perfectly on any computer, because the addresses are the same on all computers. The same applies to hyperlinks that link one section of a document to another section in the same document. For example, hyperlinks from the table of contents of an electronic document will usually function on any computer.

Later on in this book a problem solving methodology will be discussed that uses computerized links and other techniques. Thus, it can be quite useful to master the techniques discussed above, because they can be helpful in the problem solving process. Keep in mind, that to master any computer technique requires trial and error learning coupled with practice. If you want additional information about the above techniques you can conduct an Internet search for more information. You can also obtain some useful information from the help menu in Microsoft Word.

Subtopic: This Book Contains Search Terms

One of the many problem-solving skills emphasized in this booklet is Internet searching. There are many highlighted words in this book that are meant to be used as search terms, such as: brainstorming, fuzzy logic, problem solving software, set theory. That is when you see words that are highlighted I am suggesting that you use the words to conduct an Internet search, if you are interested in additional information. This will usually provide one or more of the following:

· Information on organizations, retail outlets, experts, technicians, software, funding and other resources that relate to a problem. (This is often the most important set of components for problem-solving.)

· More detailed information on the topic I am discussing in the booklet (Searching for additional information is also important for most complex problem-solving efforts.)

· An alternative or traditional point of view on the topic that I am discussing in the booklet (Additional points of view can stimulate creative thinking, and can also lead to solutions.)

· A different description of the topic I am discussing in the booklet (This can provide comprehension and insight which is also important for problem solving.)

Subtopic: The Results You Will Obtain from the Search Terms in this Book will be Very Large in Most Cases

Usually a search with the highlighted terms in this book can provide many thousands of results, which is generally the case with most Internet searches. Obviously, it would be impossible to review all such results. You can sometimes refine your search, and reduce the number of unwanted results, by placing the words in quotation marks, such as “How to conduct an Internet search” This works with some search engines, such as Google, or Google Scholar. However, this can sometimes produce no results, or eliminate the results you are looking for. Often, the best strategy is to start your search with quotation marks. Then repeat the search without the quotation marks, if you do not obtain ideal results with the first attempt.

Subtopic: For the Techniques and Strategies in This Book You Need the Best Search Engines

To obtain the best search engines click on the Blue Web links in this subtopic. Google ( http://www.google) is the best search engine when you want to make an extensive search. Google Scholar (http://www.google.com/scholar ) focuses on academic and scientific material, which is generally at an advanced level. Google groups http://groups.google.com/?hl=en& is a search engine primarily focused on the opinions of individuals, which can sometimes be very useful when you are trying to determine how individuals experience products, services, life experiences, etc. However, sometimes the search engine at Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com) produces better search results than any of the above, because it is usually more selective. Thus, when you are doing your searches do not overlook Yahoo!

If you were not using the four search engines mentioned above, you have no idea what the Internet is really about. Most of the other search engines, with some exceptions of course, usually produce a relatively limited number of results, which are aimed at selling you products, as opposed to providing information. However, you should become familiar and skillful with a number of search engines, because even the less useful search engines sometimes produce good results.

One of the best ways of becoming familiar with a large number of search engines is to obtain the Girafa toolbar, and/or the Advancedsearchbar. These toolbars contain well over a dozen search engines, including Google and Yahoo! You can obtain these toolbars by clicking on the Internet links at the end of this subtopic. However, before you do so, you should have knowledge of how to uninstall them, in case they cause problems with your system, which they sometimes do. (Do an Internet search for uninstalling software in Windows)

Toolbars of this type, also sometimes spontaneously download many pop up advertisements and Spyware. This can slow down or jam up your computer. If you use the Internet, even without these toolbars, you are likely to have serious problems with pop up ads, and Spyware, unless you have an anti-Spyware program on your system that you run regularly. You should of course also have antivirus software on your system. If you are not familiar with the above, do an Internet search for all of the following: anti-Spyware, Spyware, viruses, and antivirus software.

To obtain the Girafa toolbar click on the following Web link:

http://www.girafa.com/download.acr

Click on http://www.advancedsearchbar.com/index.html to obtained the Advancedsearchbar.

Subtopic: Obtaining Icons of Your Favorite Search Engines

It is very useful to have icons on the Windows desktop of the search engines you find most useful. Once you have an icon of a search engine, you just click on it, and the engine opens, and it is ready to be used. To obtain icons for over 100 search engines, click on the following link. Search Engines

This folder is very useful, and you can copy it, and place it on a convenient place on your computer, such as the Windows desktop.

The search engine folder that I created has some advantages over the toolbars mentioned above. First it contains more search engines than any of the toolbars, and it does not attract Spyware or pop-up advertising, in the way that toolbars do. It is also easy to organize the search engines in the folder I created. You can remove the search engines that you do not use very often to another folder. However, you might want to create your own icons and search engine folder. You can learn how to make your own icons by reading the following paragraph.

There are two ways of making icons in the Windows operating system, but one of the two will only work if you are using Internet Explorer. With Internet Explorer when you are at a website of any type, including a search engine's website, you can create icons by right clicking with the mouse. Then a menu opens, and you then click on create shortcut. Then a box opens, asking you if it is OK to place the icon on the desktop, and you should click on yes. If you want to know more about creating icons click on this link http://www.ehow.com/how_14057_create-internet-explorer.html or do an Internet search with the following terms: how to create icons in Internet Explorer, making icons of websites, how to create icons in Netscape, how to create icons.

Subtopic: What Are Browsers, and Where Can They Be Obtained?

To search the Internet there are two basic components that are required, one is a browser, and the other is a search engine. The browser is software on your computer, which opens web pages on the Internet, or any document that you have on your computer that is in the web page format (HTML). A search engine is essentially software on a website, which generally involves a powerful computing system that searches the Internet. I have not noticed much of an advantage from one browser to another, but as noted previously, I found a tremendous difference between search engines. Internet Explorer is the most popular browser, and it is compatible with just about any website, and it is essentially part of the Windows operating system. That is if you have Microsoft Windows, you will have Internet Explorer. If Internet Explorer is not loaded into your system, you can obtain it from the Windows CD, or directly from Microsoft's website, by clicking on this link: http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/Products.aspx?displaylang=en

Some of the other browsers might occasionally encounter an error as a result of compatibility with a website, but it is generally not a problem. You can have a number of browsers on your computer, in the same sense that you can have a number of word processors. If you want to obtain additional browsers, click on the links below. However, the warnings previously given for toolbars, regarding Spyware and other problems, also applies to the browsers.

Opera http://www.opera.com/

Firefox 1.5.exe http://www.mozilla.com/

Topic: Very Important Topic: An Introduction to Problem-Solving, Involving the Computer and Other Techniques

Subtopic: Introduction to a New Perspective on Problem Solving

The second page of this book presents a problem, with the statement: To truly understand the utility of the methods and theories it contains, it is necessary to read the entire book. What do you do if you do not have the time to read the entire book? Keep in mind that this problem is not limited to this book. Students, instructors, business people, homemakers, and everyone else are faced with excessively large amounts of material to read. In addition, the problem solving process often involves extensive study, which usually requires reading a huge amount of material. The most important problem solving skill is the ability to read and study a large amount of text, and successfully learn from the effort. This leads us back to the problem in the beginning of the paragraph: What do you do if you do not have the time to read large amounts of material.

Since this is a book on problem solving, I will use the above to illustrate some general methods of solving problems of this type. The first step is to define (delineate, or described) the problem. This ideally should be done in a way that will lead to a solution that will be useful for many similar problems, which usually provides maximum benefit for your investment of effort, time and money. Often a problem can be defined in terms of a question, which in this case is: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? Before I attempt to find a solution, I am asking you to try and come up with your own solution to this problem.

There are of course many obvious solutions, such as: read a few pages every day until you complete this book, or any other long reading assignment. Another obvious solution is: read the interesting or important topics, and glance over the rest of the material. Still another possible solution is to study speed reading. These are all commonsense solutions. There is nothing wrong with commonsense solutions. Sometimes this is the best approach, and some of the strategies in this book are based on commonsense. However, this book goes beyond the commonsense ways of solving problems. This can involve unique strategies, methods, theories, and technologies.

The solution to the above problem is simply to listen to this book or any other material that involves many pages of text. Listening can be done while you are doing something else, such as cleaning the house, traveling on the bus, taking a walk, etc. However, this does not appear to make sense, and it seems impossible, which is often the case with many good solutions. How can you listen to a book? This brings us to another important principle about problem solving, which is to postpone final judgment. Often people believe that a problem cannot be solved, and they reject any possible solution as impractical, or nonsense. The above idea, listen to this book or any other lengthy document is actually quite possible, and how to do this is explained in the next paragraph.

There is special software that you can download from the Internet for free, simply by clicking on the links on the end of this paragraph. This software will read aloud any text on a computer screen, including this book, assuming you have it in electronic format. The software will also read aloud text on any website. In addition, it will also read any documents you typed on your computer. This might sound strange to you. Computers don’t read and talk, do they? They answer is computers read text in spoken language, better than human beings, with good quality text-to-speech software?

This might sound pretty good to you, but it gets even better. The software can convert several dozen pages in a few seconds into audio files, which can be recorded on CD-R or an MP3 player. For example, to transform 50 pages of text, into sound, and put it on a CD or a MP3 player will take about three minutes. Once the text is converted and recorded, you can listen to this book, or any other text, on a portable CD or MP3 player. When this is done, you can listen to text anywhere, such as while shopping, while traveling, while jogging, while waiting online, etc.

If you do not have a portable CD or MP3 player, they are very inexpensive. A portable CD player can cost anywhere from $15 to about $100. A portable MP3 player is more expensive, but it is probably better for most people, because they generally do not have any moving parts, and can hold bigger files. Portable CD and MP3 players are available at almost any store that sells portable electronic devices.

I purchased the COBY MP-CD511 portable CD player, (approximately $30) because it is especially useful for the purpose described above. It can play a number of formats besides the conventional CD format, such as MP3 files, CD-R, and CD-RW.

The text-to-speech software to read text on the computer screen, or convert it to sound files for portable devices, is available from the number of manufacturers. Most of the brands of text-to-speech software can be downloaded from the Internet and used for free for a trial period of 15 to 30 days. After the trial the software can be purchased with a credit or debit card for prices ranging from $25 to $50. If you want to obtain better quality voices for your text-to-speech software, you can purchase additional high-quality voice engines for approximately $25 to $35. Based on my personal evaluations the best text-to-speech software is Alive Text to Speech, and the best speech engines are AT&T Natural Voices Mike16 and Crystal16. With this system, the computer sounds as if a real person, (a trained announcer) is reading the text.

The Internet links to obtain the various brands of text-to-speech software, and voice engines are as follows:

Alive Text to Speech http://www.alivemedia.net/

I purchased this for about $25 and it is the best.

CoolSpeech http://www.bytecool.com

Text Aloud http://www.nextup.com/index.html

They also sell a large number of high-quality voice engines. I purchased the AT&T voice engines from them. They also provide a number of older voice engines for free.

NaturalReader http://www.naturalreaders.com

Subtopic: Additional Information about Text-To-Speech Software and Voice Engines

There are many other brands of text-to-speech software on the Internet, and you can do an Internet search with the words text-to-speech software. However, there is text-to-speech software that is intended for other purposes, such as for advertising, or for the blind. This category of text-to-speech software is very expensive, and generally does not provide the functionality needed by the general consumer. A second category of text-to-speech software is designed for the general consumer, for proofreading documents, reading web pages and electronic books. This software is generally easy to use, and very inexpensive as indicated above.

You can also do an Internet search for additional voice engines to be used with text-to-speech software. Use the search terms voice engines or computer voices. Many of these voices are free. However, the very high-quality voices generally cost about $25 to $35.

Subtopic: Did We Solve the Problem, that we Started with?

Now we have a possible solution to the problem: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? With all the above (text-to-speech software, CD or MP3 player) it is possible to listen to this book or any written text, on your computer, or with a portable CD or MP3 player. However, we did not actually solve the problem. We just created a plan that may or may not lead to a total or partial solution to the problem, in your particular case. After a plan of this type is created, it is usually necessary to engage in all of the following: the learning process, the trial and error process, and experimentation. This involves learning how to use the equipment in an efficient way that actually solves the problem in your particular case. This effort might also require modifications in strategies, techniques, plans, and possibly in the software and equipment as well, to obtain a solution that truly works for you. Many problem solving efforts fail because the above is not understood, or it is not properly carried out. However, even after you work extensively with the problem solving process, plans, and new technology, you may or may not find a solution that is practical for you.

All of the above represent general principles about problem solving, which are very important. However, there are many more important concepts to problem solving, and I will continue with these ideas in the following subtopic.

Subtopic: Improving the Plan

In the preceding paragraphs, we created a plan to solve the problem: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? When a plan is created it is a good idea to ask the question: Can this plan be improved? It is often a good idea to ask yourself this question all throughout the problem solving process, and to make any improvements that you can. To illustrate this idea, I will continue with the problem we started with.

Do you have any idea how the plan explained in the proceeding paragraphs can be improved, to obtain a better solution to the problem? Look for weaknesses in the plan, and make corrections for any weaknesses. Sometimes you can add additional ideas to the plan. Sometimes you can simplify the plan. Sometimes you can make the plan more realistic. There are actually a very large number of ways that plans focused on a problem solving effort or a goal can be improved. This will become apparent if you read the entire book, but I will focus on a few simple ideas here.

I will continue with the problem, how to deal with excessively long reading assignments. We can add some additional ideas to the plan to deal with this problem. Pacifically, it is probably more efficient for most people if they combine conventional reading with the text-to-speech computer reading (described above). That is reading written language provides certain advantages in the learning process, such as the ability to precisely control the pace that each sentence is read at. You can easily reread any section of text if you do not understand it, or if you want to commit it to memory. Listening to a computer reading out loud, or any recorded information, can complement conventional reading, and the best strategy would be to combine both methods, into our plan.

If we are going to incorporate conventional reading into the plan, we should also incorporate the common sense ideas of dealing with a large amount of text, mentioned at the beginning of this topic. That is, when you have large quantities of text to read, such as this book, you can read the most interesting or important sections, and glance over the rest of the material, and then listen to the entire book read aloud with speech to text software. This or some variation similar to this might provide the most efficient way of learning large amounts of material. However, if the material is used in some way, it will further enhance the learning process. This can involved applying the material, experimenting with it, writing about it, or talking about it.

Now we have an even better plan to deal with large quantities of reading material. However, we can make further improvements, if we consider the possibility of employing special reading techniques. One of the concepts that we can use is speed reading. However, speed reading has many disadvantages, if you are trying to learn new material. For example, people that speed read often skip over the most important material inadvertently, and worst of all, they fill in the blanks that they did not read, or fully comprehend. Using this strategy, with this book, would result in a total misunderstanding of the concepts. However, if you keep the above difficulties in mind, you can avoid these drawbacks of speed reading, with a little effort. This is especially the case if you combine speed reading with all of the other techniques mentioned above, including listening to the text read aloud by the text-to-speech method.

Now that we determined that speed reading is useful, if combined with the above techniques, how do we learn speed reading? There are many speed reading courses, most of which are based on many different philosophies and incorporate different methods. However, these courses are expensive and they are not the only way to learn speed reading.

The best way to learn speed reading, is to ask your self the question: How can modern technology help me learned speed reading? Is there any technology that can be used to learn speed reading? When I asked myself similar questions, it led to Internet searches. This resulted in a number of excellent software packages that teach speed reading, as well as a number of other concepts that relate to reading, such as comprehension. Most of these software packages can be adjusted in difficulty, ranging from elementary levels to the most advanced levels of speed reading. They also contain built-in automatic timers, electronic pacers that flash words a various speeds, and comprehension tests that electronically tabulate your score. Some of these devices incorporate various games, and techniques to increase reading speed and comprehension. An important component of speed reading involves various types of eye movements, which many of these software packages deal with. To obtain this software for a free trial period, click on the following links:

· http://www.stepware.com/download.html AceReader has a number of versions, such as: original, or pro deluxe, for a free download trial of 30 days. The purchase prices range from approximately $25 to $80. I downloaded the AceReader Pro, and ithad a large number of features, and appeared to be

· http://www.bio-health.com.au/speed_reading.htm this is much simpler than the above program, but has much less features, and it only deals with reading speed, without measuring speed of comprehension. Thus, it has limited utility, but it only cost about $25

· http://www.rocketreader.com/download/RocketReaderDownload.html RocketReader has many features, including speed reading and rate of comprehension.

If you want to do your own search, use the words speed reading software as search terms.

Subtopic: We Improved the Plan, is the Problem Solved?

Did we solve the problem by improving the plan? The answer is no, but we have a better plan. It incorporates a number of strategies and techniques to solve a problem we started with: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? As previously stated to solve the problem, requires implementation of a plan. This plan is typical of what is often required to solve moderately difficult problems. To obtain the solution or goal requires many hours of work, learning, studying, and the application of the trial and error process. Once the plan is initiated, the trial and error process might suggest ways of improving the plan, and the strategies, techniques, and technologies that the plan contains. A good plan is designed to be modified and improved based on the trial and error process.

Question: did we create a good plan to solve the problem: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so?) The answer is this plan has many good features that should be incorporated into any plan designed to solve a difficult problem, or obtain a challenging goal. First, with this plan, even if the problem does not get solved, the equipment and the skills that you are likely to obtain have other uses besides solving the above problem. For example, the CD and MP3 players required to solve the problem, can be used to listen to stereophonic music, and relaxation recordings. The overall effort is likely to result in an increase in computer knowledge and skills, which can be quite useful for other situations. Another good feature incorporated into the plan is multiple methods and technologies. For example, if the computer text-to-speech reading turns out to be of little used to you, the other technique involving speed reading software may be helpful. (The general ideas, presented with the above problem, should be incorporated into your efforts to obtain challenging goals and solutions.)

The above plan, with all its good features, to deal with excessive reading material, is not necessarily a good plan for you, personally. Any problem solving effort of this type requires hours of work, and learning, and the problem that we started with may simply not warrant the effort based on your current needs in value system, to solve the problem: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? This is another very important principle. Very often there are problems we would like to solve, but the cost in time, effort and money is simply not worthwhile for us. Sometimes it is better to live with a problem, or not to attempt to obtain a goal, because it involves too much of an investment in time, effort, and/or money. In such cases, the simplest and quickest commonsense resolution is often the best approach.

An understanding of our own true values and needs can be used to help us decide on how much time, money and effort we are willing to invest to obtain an objective. If you are ever in a situation where you are assisting someone else with their problems or goals, the above is very important to understand. We may consider someone else's difficulties and goals in terms of our own value system. The idea to keep in mind is someone else’s value system may place a higher or lower value on resolving specific difficulties and obtaining specific goals.

Topic: The Clarification of Terminology and Related Concepts

Subtopic: The Terminology

To explain the ideas that I am presenting in this book, I had to be somewhat creative with terminology. This was partly done to prevent redundancy. The most important terminology is defined below. Additional terms are defined in the various sections throughout the book. Incidentally, the terminology is not difficult, and they are common words, but they are used in a slightly different way in this text.

Subtopic: What is the Difference Between Trial and Error, and Experimentation

I use the terminology trial and error, or trial and error process, trial and error learning, experimentation, and experiment throughout this book. These concepts are explained in more detail in a different section of this booklet. However, I am providing some information here, because these terms are used in the beginning pages of this booklet.

Trial and error and experimentation are quite similar, but there are also very important differences between these two concepts. Trial and error is a process that is aimed at obtaining a goal. The goal can be to learn how to perform a task, such as operating a computer, hitting a base ball, riding a bicycle. The goal can also involve an effort to create something, such as making a sculpture from clay. In addition, the goal can relate to other attainments, such as hitting a target with a dart, finding a lost item, getting to a destination with incomplete travel directions.

Trial and error involves a repeated cycle that involves all of the following:

· A trial which is an attempt to do something, such as hitting a target with a dart

· An evaluation of the results of the trial, such as a quick visual assessment of how close a dart landed to the center of the target.

· Modification of efforts, such as slight change of body and hand position so the dart will be closer to the target on the next trial

· Then a new trial begins, and the cycle continues until the goal is obtained, or the effort is stopped for some other reason.

Experimentation (experiment), generally involves one goal, which is to obtain information. Very often the experimentation is carried out to prove or disprove a hypothesis. Often, experimentation involves testing two systems, under identical conditions, except for one factor. For example, medications are often tested with two similar groups of people. One group is given the medication. The other group is given a placebo. The two groups are compared, to evaluate the effectiveness, and side effects of the medication. Experiments are often carried out under controlled (or at least semi-controlled conditions).

Experimentation is not just done by scientists. People all throughout life engage in various types of simple experiments. This involves simple trials, and evaluations. We may try the new product to see if it is useful for us. We may try one brand of shaver, use it for a while, then try another brand, and decide which brand is better. Thus we all experiment, but the results we obtain might only apply to our personal situation. We want to experiment and see what works best for us. We want to find out what works for our needs and problems.

Keep in mind, when the theories, strategies, and methods in this book, or from any other source, are applied to complex problems, you must use trial and error, and experimentation.

Very Important Subtopic: The Words Difficult & Challenging, & a Very Useful Strategy for Difficult Problems & Challenging Goals

In this book I frequently use the words difficult problem, challenging problem, challenging goal, very difficult problem or goal. The words difficult or challenging essentially have a number of slightly different meanings. That is a problem or goal can be difficult or challenging because under the given set of circumstances there is no apparent solution, or there is a high likelihood of failure because of the number of unknowns involved. For example, an individual might want to start a business, but he cannot figure out a way of obtaining all the money that would be needed to run it for a couple of years until the break even point was reached. Another example, a do-it-yourselfer might want to build his own home, but he is not certain that he can master the needed skills to do so. There are medical problems that have many unknowns, and are usually considered incurable diseases, such as cancer.

The second kind of difficult or challenging problem or goal does not contain any insurmountable unknowns, but it is difficult because of its complexity. A simple example is a complex mathematics homework assignment, which is difficult because of its complexity. It may also be difficult because of inadequate mastery of the skills needed to complete the assignment successfully. There is another important concept here, which is the relative degree of developed skills of the individual or individuals that are trying to solve the problem. That is to solve a specific problem often requires skills, and if needed skills are not present, or if they are not developed, the solution or goal will be very difficult to obtain or maybe totally unattainable.

Other good examples of difficult problems and goals can be seen with large-scale industrial projects. For example, if a large corporation decides to build a skyscraper, this is a difficult problem, but there are no significant unknowns. Specifically, there have been many skyscrapers built by large corporations over the last hundred years, but nevertheless it is a very difficult problem because of its complexity. However, if the average person wanted to build a skyscraper, there would be a huge amount of unknowns, especially in relation to funding. In this case the problem would be difficult from two perspectives, one because of the complexity of the project, and the second reason would be because of the unknowns.

It should be kept in mind that it is not only the number of unknowns that make a problem difficult or challenging, it is also the likelihood of resolving the unknowns. If we returned to the above example of a skyscraper, the individual that wants to build a skyscraper may be faced with only one unknown, which is financing the project. For the average person this would be an unknown that probably could not be resolved.

Another way that people often use the word difficult is related to the degree of discomfort involved with solving a problem or obtaining a goal. For example, reading a novel for an English assignment may be perceived as difficult. However, reading the same novel under different circumstances may be perceived as a pleasurable task with little difficulty associated with it. Often, a problem or goal is perceived as difficult because of the circumstances involved, such as the possibility of adverse consequences if there are initial failures. Using the novel as an example, when you are reading it for pleasure, there will be no adverse consequences if you fail to understand a chapter. However, there may be significant penalty if you fail to understand a chapter when you are reading it for an English assignment. All of this suggests that when you are specifically focused on solving a problem or obtaining a goal, you should do it in a way that alleviates this type of difficulty, if that is feasible. This involves removing pressure from yourself, and devising ways of eliminating any adverse consequences in the event that you initially fail on the first attempts.

However, removing pressure from your self, or from other individuals that are working on a problem, may or may not produce good results. On the positive side, when pressure is removed, it can produce better results because it gives the people involved the freedom to be creative. In addition, it avoids the adverse consequences of pressure, which can result in physical and psychological illness. On the other hand, pressure can sometimes motivate people to work harder, and without it some people inadvertently or intentionally procrastinate.

Problems and goals are sometimes perceived as difficult because of extraneous discomforts that are not directly related to the problem. For example, homework in the summer months may be perceived as significantly more difficult for students that do not have air conditioning. Another example, is outdoor construction work performed in either the winter or summer may be more difficult because of the excessively cold or warm weather. Thus, the idea is to try to eliminate any factors that are causing the problem solving effort to be uncomfortable or more difficult than it would be otherwise. All of the above suggests a very useful strategy when dealing with problems and goals. The strategy simply consists of evaluating a problem or goal in terms of the factors that relate to the concept of difficulty presented above. When this is done, it is possible sometimes to reduce the number of factors that are related to the relative degree of difficulty. In addition, it is also possible sometimes to reduce the significance of the factors, or circumvent them in various ways. This strategy can sometimes make a difficult problem or goal much easier. It can sometimes make unattainable solutions or goals obtainable. All of this will be clarified by reading the following instructions and questions.

To use the strategy, and reduce the difficulty of your problem or goal, answer the following questions:

· How many unknowns are there in your problem? List the unknowns in order of importance. Are any of these unknowns likely to be unsolvable? What are all the possible ways that you can circumvent or eliminate these unknowns? Is there any information that will be helpful in resolving these unknowns? Would assistants from experts, technicians, or anyone else help resolve these unknowns?

· Is your problem or goal difficult because of the complexity that is involved? How many components or factors are involved with your problem or goal? Try to list in order of importance all the components or factors that relate to your problem or goal. How many factors or components are involved? Can you reduce the number of components or factors that are needed to obtain the solution or goal?

· Is your problem or goal difficult because you do not have adequate skills to achieve your objective? If so, what are all the skills that you are lacking or are weak in? List the skills that you are lacking in order of importance. Then list in order of importance all the skills that you are weak in, in terms of your problem or goal. Can you obtain assistants from experts or technicians that have the skills that you lack? What are all the possible ways that you can obtain your objective without the skills? Can you master the skills? What are all the possible ways that you can develop the needed skills to an adequate level to obtain your objective?

· Is your problem or goal difficult because of pressure from others, such as superiors, instructors, family, friends, etc? If so, what are all the possible ways of removing or reducing the pressure?

· Is your problem or goal difficult because of environmental discomforts? Is the room that you are working in comfortable, if not what is producing the discomfort? List all the uncomfortable and distracting factors that are making your problem solving effort more difficult. What are all the possible ways of reducing the adverse factors?

· Can you add any factors that would make your problem solving effort less difficult, more comfortable, or more pleasurable? List all the possible ways that this can possibly be done?

Subtopic: What Does the Phrase Real-World Mean?

In this booklet, I use the word real-world to delineate any activity, planning or problem-solving that is not limited to a cognitive process, pencil and paper or a computer screen. For example, real-world problem-solving is seen in engineering projects, where mathematics and plans are created on paper, or a computer screen, and applied to create a new product. However, if the effort stops at the stage of mathematics and plans and goes no further, it is not real-world problem-solving, as the terminology is used in this booklet.

Subtopic: What Does the Word Problem Mean in this Book?

In this booklet I use the word problem in a very general sense, and it means any situation that is perceived to be less than optimal. An unsolved equation or crossword puzzle can be perceived as less than an optimal situation, if your goal is a solved equation or puzzle. If an individual is motivated to make a change, such as solving the equation or puzzle, he is changing the situation to a more optimal state, based on the way I am using the terminology. The same is true for a medical condition, a leaking roof, termite infestation, an automobile that will not start, a high crime rate, and any other condition that is perceived as undesirable. When any goal is set, a less than optimal state is perceived and delineated, which is a problem based on the way I am using the terminology. When the goal is obtained the problem is solved. Thus, goals such as completing college, starting a new business, buying a house, learning how to dance, becoming a marathon runner, building a skyscraper, introducing a new product, are all problems.

In general, any task that involves some type of goal fits the definition of a problem based on the way I am using the terminology. This includes everything from solving a difficult calculus problem, to inventing a new electronic device, to repairing the toaster, to the simplest routine tasks that are usually not considered problems, such as answering the telephone. The reason I am using these general definitions is many of the methodologies and theories discussed in this book apply to all types of goal related tasks. In addition, by analyzing tasks at various levels of difficulty, including the simplest, we can obtain insights that have wide application in all types of problem-solving.

Subtopic: Problems can be Divided into Four Categories

Based on the concepts presented in this book, problems can be placed into four categories, which are as follows:

Pencil and paper problems are essentially limited to a cognitive process, and include logic problems, adding figures, solving geometric or algebraic problems, putting together a child's puzzle, *writing a computer program or book. Problems in this category do not require consumable resources to solve, except for paper, pencil, pen or ink. Some nonconsumable resources may be required, such as a computer with appropriate software, a calculator, and similar devices. These problems can be solved by one individual, without spending money on structural materials, and professional services.

*Writing a computer program or a book is not a real world problem if it is done strictly for practice, learning or personal satisfaction. However if it is done for publication, to earn money, or some other practical purpose, then it is a real world problem. When a problem is strictly limited to paper or a computer screen it is not a real-world problem. The following three categories represent real-world problems.

Adverse problems are undesirable situations that are usually considered to be abnormal states, and include a broken arm, the flu, any medical condition, a malfunctioning computer, a termite infested house, a building on fire, leaky pipes, a power failure. Adverse problems involve attempts to restore a normal state, or to gain something that was lost, such as good health, a functioning computer, a misplaced diamond ring. Adverse problems also involve attempts to obtain necessities that most people have, such as basic literacy skills, food, clothing and shelter. Adverse problems usually require consumable resources, and/or professional assistance, as well as some type of funding.

Goal-related-problems, involve goals that are not related to adverse-problems, and often relate to some type of achievement or improvement that is at least a little above the norm. Goal-related-problems also include efforts to do something, or obtain something, which are not basic necessities or routine tasks. All of the following are examples of goal-related-problems: building a closet, completing graduate school, starting a business, making money in the stock market, becoming more successful, making more friends, developing skills in computer technology, building a skyscraper, carrying out an engineering project to create a new type of automobile, obtaining a professional level job that pays a high salary. Problems in this category often involve spending or earnings money. They often require other people, and sometimes they require professional assistance.

Routine-problems, are tasks that are routinely performed, and are usually simple, such as sharpening a pencil, turning on the lights, driving to work, shopping for food, walking to your friend’s house, cooking, answering the telephone, making a phone call. Problems in this category are usually not considered problems by most people. However, all of us found most of these tasks challenging to varying degrees when we were in early childhood. They may be considered challenging problems by some adults, because of lack of skills, physical handicaps, or lack of time. For example, cooking an entire three course meal is a challenging problem, if you do not know how to cook well, or if you do not have the time to prepare elaborate meals. In addition, routine tasks can be relatively challenging problems under unusual conditions. Some examples, in this regard are sharpening a pencil when there is no sharpener available, finding and turning on a light switch in an unfamiliar broom incomplete darkness, getting to work during a subway and bus strike, walking a couple of blocks on an ice covered street with dangerously high wind conditions.

All of the above is another major reason for defining simple tasks as problems. That is studying simple tasks as problems result in the delineation of the steps involved, and related insights about the task. When a simple task is truly difficult for one of the above reasons, this information can be used to circumvent the difficulty. This information can also be used to simplify the task, improve the effectiveness of the task, and increase efficiency.

Subtopic: What Does the Words SOLUTION and GOAL Mean?

The word goal and solution have identical meanings in this booklet. For example, when you are trying to solve an algebraic equation, the goal is to find the solution. When you are suffering from a medical problem, the solution or goal is to cure the condition. If your goal is to earn a Ph.D. the problem will be solved: when you obtain your doctorate.

Subtopic: What Does Problem-Solving, and Goal-Attainment Effort Mean in this Book?

Problem-solving, problem-solving efforts and goal-attainment efforts have identical meanings in this book. I use the above to avoid redundancy.

Subtopic: Definitions for: Techniques, Method, Methodology

In this book techniques and methods mean exactly the same thing. Based on the way I am using the terminology, the word methodology, means away of performing a task, or solving a problem, by using two or more techniques or procedures, that work well together, especially in relation to the guiding principles of a theoretical or a philosophical perspective. This usually involves using different techniques to perform different parts of a task, similar to the way a set of tools are used. A good example of a methodology is the set of problem-solving techniques in this book.

Subtopic: What Does Creativity Mean?

Creativity (or creative) means actions that result in the creation of a new entity, as the term is used in this text. The entity can be just about anything, such as a poem, music, a new electronic device, any invention, a theory, a new technique, a new philosophy, a unique process, an essay, a book, a new recipe for apple pie, etc. The entity must be either an original, or it can be original on a personal level. This example will clarify what I mean by original on a personal level. If a student discovers the mathematical principles that relate to gravity, as a result of his own calculations and experimentation that is creative work, and it is original on a personal level. However, these principles were discovered many years ago by Sir Isaac Newton. Thus the students work is not original from the perspective of the scientific and academic community. For the student, it is only creative work on a personal level. However, the learning process by itself does not necessarily represent creative work. For example, if another student learned the same principles of gravity by reading a book, that would not be creative work.

Creative work is not necessarily good work. For example, a child’s drawing might show a tremendous amount of creativity, as a result of a good imagination, but the drawing would probably not be considered good art.

Subtopic: What Does Creative Problem-Solving Mean?

Creative Problem-solving involves attempts to obtain a creative solution. This also includes unique ways of solving problems and obtaining goals. When there is no apparent solution to a problem, attempts to obtain a solution must be creative. When the standard solution to a problem is less than optimal, a creative approach might produce better results.

Creative problem-solving is not necessarily better than conventional techniques. A creative approach to problem-solving, or any task, usually involves a considerable degree of uncertainty, and it may be time-consuming, sometimes expensive, and the results may or may not be satisfactory. When there is a standard method of performing a task or solving a problem, it is very often the best approach, unless you are interested in experimenting. Of course, if there is no satisfactory solution to the problem, the creative approach is the best.

Subtopic: What Are Creativity Techniques?

Creativity techniques, means in this text any technique that is intended to help with creative thinking or creative problem solving. The most well-known creativity technique is probably brainstorming. There are many creativity techniques discussed in this book.

Subtopic: What Does the Words Strategy Mean in this Book?

I use the word strategy in this book for procedures that are generally too simple to be called techniques, and they involve ways of dealing with problems, especially by the application of common commonsense, or the sequence of applying techniques or commonsense procedures. The following are examples of strategies:

· When faced with a problem, apply the quickest and simplest procedure first, if that doesn’t work, proceed progressively to more complex problem solving procedures, involving research, detailed study, and expert assistance.

· When faced with a major decision, hesitate a while before acting. Ask yourself questions about the situation. If you cannot answer the questions that come into your mind, do some research, ask your friends, and consult experts.

Subtopic: Definitions of Experts and Technicians and How to Evaluate Them and Select the Best

This is an important topic, because most complex problems require the assistance of experts and technicians. I use the word expert in this book in a general sense, and it means any professional, or any individual that is highly knowledgeable in a specific field or subfield. This includes physicians, lawyers, psychologists, sociologists, instructors, engineers, scientists, as well as any individual that acquired expertise as a result of self-study or personal experience. I use the word technician to mean an individual that acquired hands-on knowledge in a specific technical field. This includes electricians, carpenters, plumbers, or any individual that acquired hands-on technical skills. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a technician and an expert. Usually it is assumed that the expert has an advanced college degree, and a wider theoretical knowledge than the technician. However, from the perspective of problem solving this is not important. What is important is an understanding of certain principles of human nature, which is explained in the following paragraphs.

Often, people are faced with the challenge of choosing the best expert or technician, and they look at formal credentials, affiliations, and work experience. This is not a good method of evaluation. The ideal way to evaluate is to start by looking at your problem. Then find an expert or technician that has been successfully dealing with this type of problem for a number of years. For example, if you need throat surgery, and you go to a surgeon that is world-famous, and graduated from the best schools, but he only occasionally does throat surgery, you probably made a bad choice. A surgeon that has been successfully performing the specific type of surgery you need, for many years is the best surgeon for you. This is even true if he has minimal credentials, as long as he is properly licensed. The important principle to understand about experts and technicians, and human nature in general, is people are most successful with tasks that they have been doing for many years. The more experience an individual has with successfully performing a specific task, the greater the chances he will have of future success with that task. The very important concept to keep in mind is practice makes perfect, in relation to a specific task, especially when it has been carried out extensively and successfully for many years. This is a general concept that has wide application, and it will be discussed in other sections of this book.

However, very often an expert or technician, who does not have experience with your specific type of problem, will understand the problem quite well. If you present technical literature about your problem, they will probably understand it. This is especially the case with the prolonged training that experts receive, but you should keep in mind that we are dealing with reading comprehension skills in a technical field. This does not necessarily mean they can solve your problem, it just means they can understand it.

Sometimes, we are dealing with an unusual problem or goal, and we cannot obtain any expert or technician that has the needed experience. When this is the case, the best choice would be an expert or technician that is willing to take the time and effort to work on your problem.

Another important consideration with experts and technicians relates to the quality of work they generally produce. For example, a cabinet maker that has been working in a shop that sells inexpensive furniture will be experienced in producing an economical product. If you requested a luxury cabinet, he probably would not have the wood, or the tools, or the experience to adequately meet your request. Obviously, if you want a luxury cabinet built, you would have to go to a cabinet maker that specializes in luxury furniture. However, the luxury cabinetmaker probably would not have the experience needed to produce low-priced furniture of good quality. The same idea generally applies to lawyers, physicians, medical facilities, schools, and just about any type of expert or technician.

Another relevant consideration when dealing with experts and technicians is there willingness and ability to carry out your requests. Willingness is a very important factor when you are dealing with anything that is complicated or unusual. If you find that you are dealing with someone that is somewhat reluctant to carryout your requests, you should seek assistance elsewhere.

Another important principle when dealing with experts and technicians are their role in your problem solving or goal attainment efforts. One commonsense strategy is to transfer your problem to the expert or technician, and let him or her solve it. This is not always feasible, but it is very often possible with simple technical problems, such as plumbing, and electrical malfunctions. Often, with medical and educational problems and goals, we must be a participant in the problem solving process. Medical decisions often involve personal values, and efforts at rehabilitation. With educational goals, the primary burden is usually almost entirely placed on the student. In these cases, you must keep in mind that you are working with the expert or technician, and the final result will probably be determined by your efforts.

Section-2: Problem Solving and the Writing Process, and Computer Aided Problem Solving Methodologies

Topic: Problem Solving From the Perspective of a Technical Writer

Subtopic: My Point of View and this Book

I wrote this book from the perspective of a technical writer. Technical writers use the Internet and the computer extensively for research and for writing. They act as teachers, but they use writing instead of spoken language to convey ideas. A good technical writer also uses the writing process and other techniques to solve problems. In addition he tries to prevent problems from occurring, especially when he is writing instructions, such as for new products. This involves writing that presents information in an easily understandable format, about products, with appropriate safety warnings. This is done with the goal of preventing accidents for the consumer and preventing liability problems for his employer. That is technical writers can be thought of as teachers and problem solvers, who use written language to achieve their objectives. More precisely, the above is the perspective that I developed in my study of technical writing.

Subtopic: A Couple of Introductory Ideas About The Writing Process In Relation To Problem Solving

There are a large number of ways that the writing process can be used in the problem solving process. Writing about a problem, especially with the computer connected to the Internet, with word processor software, often clarifies the problem, and the steps needed to obtain a solution. Even when problems seem unsolvable, the writing process can lead to a solution, a good resolution, or an alternative path to a goal. There is no mystery involved with this process. Writing extensively about a problem, involves research, study, and organizing of ideas and text. All of this facilitates the learning process. That is if you did not know how to solve a problem, by writing about it in detail, you might learn how to solve it. This is especially true if your efforts involved extensive research and study about the problem, which is often necessary to write about it.

In addition to the above, when you write about a problem its components become more apparent, as a result of efforts to explain it in written language. These components often represent smaller factors that comprise the problem, which can sometimes be solved individually.

Writing about almost any entity, including problems, solutions, goals, necessitates descriptions of sections of the entity, in terms of a series of sentences, and paragraphs. This is essentially the process of analyzing. A simplified example will make this idea clear. If you write about a famous painting, describing its overall look, the colors, the subject, the background, and the ideas that the painting conveys, you will be involved in a process of analyzing. This will probably provide you with new insights about the painting. However, if you write about the painting in even more detail, perhaps examining the different textures of the paint, the brush strokes, the type of paint, the individual components comprising the background and the subject, you will obtain even more insight. The same idea applies to a problem, the more detail you consider, especially in terms of the writing process, the more insight you will obtain.

A major component of complex problem-solving is communicating with experts and technicians. This usually can be done most effectively in writing. Often, there are many people involved with the problem solving process, and each individual needs a description of the portion of the problem he is to deal with. The most obvious example in this regard, can be seen in the construction industry. The architect deals with specific portions of the project, structural engineers deal with another section, financial experts deal with the economics involved, etc. Each individual must have written documents explaining relevant information about the project.

If you carefully read the preceding paragraphs in this topic, you already have two very valuable problem-solving tools. These tools can be used to solve problems that you previously could not solve. However, there are many other ways that the writing process can help you solve problems, which are discussed throughout the book along with many other techniques.

Topic: Computer Aided Problem Solving Methodologies

Many of the problem-solving techniques discussed in this book involve the computer, the Internet, and various types of software. The computer is the most powerful problem solving instrument that ever existed. It can help the user carry out all the functions needed for complex problem solving. I am calling all problem solving methodologies that extensively involve the computer, a Computer Aided Problem Solving Methodology, or CAPS Methodology, or CAPS. Many of the problems solving methodologies in this book fall into this general category.

The computer can be very helpful with many of the essential functions of complex problem solving. To illustrate this, I divided these functions into eight categories, and they are presented in the following paragraphs.

1) Searching is probably one of the most important problem solving functions. This involves searching for information, materials, equipment, experts, technicians, and funding. When this is done with the computer connected to the Internet it usually produces optimal results. This will be discussed in more detail in other topics.

2) Communications is probably the second most important element for advanced problem solving. This is because most complex problems require many individuals to solve, and they must communicate with each other to obtain a solution. The computer provides many ways of communicating including e-mail, instant messaging, two-way audio transmission (similar to the telephone) faxing directly from word processors software, and, the latest development, two-way video conferencing. All of this can totally eliminate the need to travel for conferences, and for complex problem solving it has many advantages over conventional methods of communication. Communications with the computer is not limited by distance, time of day, day of the week, or the number of participants.

3) The learning process is a major part of complex problem solving. This involves the acquisition of knowledge, and skill development involving practice, which is often needed to solve a problem. The computer can help with learning and practice in many ways. There are many types of programs that are design for different types of learning. This should be obvious from the speed reading software that was already discussed. There are programs that are designed to teach various subjects, using many different techniques, such as programmed learning, and video instruction. In spite of the many programs and methods available for learning, most problem solvers probably learn by research, trial and error, conversations with others, creating diagrams, and by writing about the project. However, incorporating other learning strategies, such as the above, might result in significant improvements in the quality of the solutions. In addition, the text-to-speech, software, which was previously discussed, can also be considered an example of a learning aid, because it allows the review and assimilation of more material then could be done by conventional study methods alone.

4) Simulation probably sounds less familiar than the functions discussed above. However, people routinely create conceptual models of the world and carry out evaluations based on simulations. This involves picturing and evaluating various behaviors associated with various entities. For example, most of us can roughly predict how our close friends and relatives will respond under different circumstances. Simulations are usually not perfect, especially when dealing with complex systems such as human beings. Computer simulations are often used in predicting the weather, engineering, science, and training airplane pilots. For example, the functionality and behavior of a new design for an airplane can be evaluated on the computer screen, before the actual plane is built. This allows the trial and error process of many different designs, before building any prototypes. (Simulation and conceptual models will be discussed in more detail in other topics.)

5) Writing has many functions in the problem solving process, as previously noted. The computer makes it relatively easy to create documents, with word processor software. These documents can easily be used for communication purposes, by transmitting directly from the word processor by fax, e-mail, or directly from one computer to another through telephone lines, cable or the Internet. Writing on the computer screen can also help an individual think, and work out problems. That is seeing your thoughts in written language on a screen, can help you evaluate, re-evaluate and improved your ideas. In addition, others can examine your concepts, and provide needed feedback or assistance to improve your ideas when they are presented in written language.

6) Storing and retrieving of information is necessary for most complex problems, because there is usually a huge amount of data involved. Some of the information may be quite unnecessary and some of it may be essential to the solution. Generally, with complex problems, it may not be obvious what information is needed, until the solution is obtained. This can involve gathering large amounts of information, which must be stored. The computer is excellent in this regard. It can store all types of information, including text, photographs, sound recordings, and video.

The computer can also easily retrieve any type of data. Documents that contain text can be found on the computer even if they are misplaced, just by doing a search with one or two words that is contained in a document. Searches can also be based on the filename, or part of the filename for any type of data including sound and video. The Windows operating system comes with software components that can perform all of the above. However, there are many other types of search devices that are available.

One of the more interesting search devices is available from Google, for free. This device searches your computer, indexes the material it finds, and when you search for information on your system it retrieves the data in a way that is similar to an Internet search. This software also allows you to instantly convert a search on your computer into an Internet search. To obtain this software click on the following link: http://desktop.google.com/

7) Mathematical and logical computations are often a major part of a problem solving effort, especially in engineering and science. Most types of computations are easily performed by the computer with appropriate software. This can range from simple arithmetic, to the most advanced algebra and calculus problems. This can involve sophisticated mathematical software, spreadsheets, or a simple calculator, such as the one that is provided with Windows.

8) Drawing is a major part of many types of problem solving, and this involves the creation of illustrations, engineering diagrams, and architectural plans. Drawing diagrams can often help in the problem solving process, by illustrating cause and effect relationships, or the series of steps needed to solve a problem. Drawing can be done with many types of software, including Microsoft Word, OpenOffice.com, the Windows Paint program, as well as a large number of CAD and Drawing software packages.

Subtopic: A Unique View on the Utility and Limitations of the Computer. Can a Computer Have Commonsense?

Note (This subtopic starts with very simple commonsense ideas. However, it proceeds into ideas that are quite theoretical from the perspective of this book, because we are not dealing with computer programming. However, it is very often useful to understand theoretical principles, because the insight that results can be helpful in the proper use of techniques and equipment. Theoretical principles often suggest possibilities, limitations, and often stimulate creative thinking. This is not just limited to this subtopic or to computer technology. It is a general principle, which suggests the utility of understanding theoretical perspectives, especially in relation to the problems you are working on.)

The many functions needed to solve advance problems can of course be done without computer technology, which is obvious if we examine history. However, it is usually much faster, and more precise to incorporate the power of the computer, when carrying out these tasks. Without a computer certain tasks would be so time-consuming that they could not be performed. For example, if you wanted to search the entire world for the best physicians in a specific medical specialty, you could do so in less than a day, and possibly even less than an hour, with the computer connected to the Internet. If you used conventional methods it might take several weeks to one year if not longer. It might require traveling to foreign countries, collecting information from a large number of publications, and reading hundreds of pages.

However, certain tasks can be performed more efficiently, quicker and more precisely without a computer, under certain circumstances. It is very important to understand when this is the case. Computers do not have sophisticated ability to apply common sense, to problem solving, unless the common sense is specifically programmed into the software. I have seen one of my older computers, with sophisticated math software struggle with trigonometric expressions that equal 1, such as the following: Anyone with a mathematical background could calculate this in their mind in a few seconds. This is obvious to human beings because they know that , , , and . The computer would only know this if it was programmed into the software, but this is also true with humans, who learn these relationships as special cases in school. The computer that was not programmed to know these relationships will engage in tremendously complicated calculations to obtain the result. Mathematical expressions of this nature can sometimes take an older computer 30 seconds to several minutes to calculate. A high-speed computer, with a large amount of memory, could complete the task in less than a second, but it is still going through the same massively complex calculations.

When you are dealing with complex culturally based concepts, especially if it involves human values, it is totally beyond the capability of most, if not all computers and software, unless the relevant components were programmed into the software. However, this is also true with human beings. Cultural values must be learned over a period of many years. This includes learning when certain cultural concepts apply, and when they do not apply. This is a very important and useful principle. Specifically, the idea here is certain types of relationships, such as culturally based concepts and believes, including many common sense ideas, must be programmed into the software, as individual units. A general example is: in a certain culture, under condition-X, response-Y might be deemed correct, except under circumstances, A, B, and C. Arbitrary concepts and relationships in this category are learned by human beings, and they are not derived through logic. The same principle would apply to computers.

However, when computers (or human beings) are dealing with logical principles, it is not necessary to deal with individual cases. It is just necessary to program into the computer (or teach the human) the logical relationships. For example, the computer (or human) is programmed (or taught) that the area of a rectangle equals its length times its width, the computer, (or the human) would be able to calculate the area of any rectangle, regardless of its length and width. This means it would be unnecessary to program into the computer, (or teach the human) thousands of individual cases.

The idea here is that with many common sense and culturally derived concepts the thousands of individual cases must be programmed into the computer. A good example of this is seen with high-quality text-to-speech voice engines, where thousands of words are programmed into the software individually. There are older text-to-speech engines that were created by using various sounds that relate to letters and syllables, which resulted in very low quality synthetic speech, where most words were very poorly pronounced.

Very often the limiting factor of a computer is the availability of software that can perform the needed task. For example, if you wanted to simulate the behavior of a system, such as your boss, on a computer, you can probably do so, if you invested enough money and time. Let us assume that you wanted to do this to determine his responses, if you demanded a raisin salary. However, you could probably create a simulation in your mind that might be more than adequate for the purpose, in a few seconds. Your mental simulation may or may not be more accurate than a computer simulation. However, if there already was a simulation program of your boss, it might be worthwhile buying it to determine his responses. The point here is, we should not attempt to do everything with a computer, and we should use the computer for procedures that can be carried out more efficiently and precisely with the software we have available.

Very Important Topic: A Computer Aided Problem Solving Methodology Called Template Aided Problem Solving

Subtopic: Introduction to a Problem Solving Methodology that Involves Templates

I organized a number of problem solving techniques into a unique system, which I am calling Template Aided Problem Solving methodology, or TAPS. This is one of many types of Computer Aided Problem Solving methodologies.

The TAPS methodology is based on templates. Templates are found in a number of different types of programs, such as mathematics, presentation, spreadsheet, word processor software. Microsoft Word has many different types of templates, such as to make resumes, to create calendars, to write letters, to write reports, to write advertising leaflets, etc. These templates are read-only. This means they can be opened as regular documents, but you must save the resulting document as a new file. This allows people to use the same templates over and over again, because when the templates are used they are not changed in any way.

The TAPS methodology that I created, involves problem solving templates that contain a number of items that can help with problem solving. This can include hyperlinks and/or icons to access whatever might be needed to solve a problem. This can include computerized links to all of the following: search engines, web sites, databases, other documents, software downloads on the Internet, cable or Internet connections to other desktop computers, supercomputers, computerized equipment, experts and technicians, etc. In addition, the hyperlinks can connect to various software packages that might be needed to solve a problem, such as spreadsheets, mathematics software, CAD, etc.

The problem solving templates can even have links that will dial specific telephone numbers, if your computer is hooked up to telephone lines with a modem. The easiest way to create templates that have specific telephone numbers is to hyperlink to the Windows Address Book, or any other type of similar software. The address book can be accessed from Outlook Express, or from the start menu. If you do not know how to use the windows Address book, click on its help menu, and/or conduct an Internet search.

The same general idea can be used to contact other computers through conventional telephone lines, which includes electronic bulletin boards that require a direct telephone connection. You can do this by creating a hyperlink to the Windows Hyper Terminal.

If you do not know how to use the Hyper Terminal carry out an Internet search on using the Windows Hyper Terminal, or read the Windows help menu in the Hyper Terminal.

You can send faxes a number of ways with the Windows operating system. The most convenient way is to send it directly from a word processor, such as Microsoft Word, by pressing print, and then switching to a fax setting in the dialog box that opens. You can also send faxes through the Windows Address Book, in a similar way. Still another way is to send the faxes through the Windows fax console.

I created a number of problem solving templates, of the type described above. These templates are of course linked to this book, (assuming you a reading the electronic version, on a computer screen.) The links that activate these problem solving templates will be presented later on in this section.

In addition, to the hyperlinks mentioned above, the problem solving templates contain relevant information to help with the problem solving process. This can involve a series of questions and related instructions to stimulate creative thinking, and to guide the user through the problem solving process. This can be in the form of one or more of the following: text, diagrams, photographs, sound recordings, and video.

The problem solving templates should generally have one or more places to utilize the writing process. This can include a place to answer in writing the questions that the template contains. There should also be plenty of room to write ideas, and develop written plans on how to solve the problem. In addition, the templates should have a place to write letters and reports to experts, technicians, and agencies assisting with the problem solving process. Alternatively, some, or all of these documents can be created in separate files that are hyperlinked to the problem solving template. The relevant documents can be faxed, or e-mail directly to relevant sources, directly from the template, or one the documents linked to it.

Obviously, the word processor or other software comprising a problem solving template, must have hyperlink capability, which makes all of the above possible. Most modern word processors, presentations and spreadsheet software have hyperlink capability. This includes just about all of the software bundled in Microsoft office, and OpenOffers.com.

Subtopic: What is the Difference between Template Aided Problem Solving and Conventional Templates?

What is the difference between Template Aided Problem Solving, and conventional templates found in word processor software, spreadsheets, and mathematics software? Conventional templates are focused on a particular type of problem solving. These templates are designed to be used when you already know how to solve the problem. For example, there are word processor templates that will help you make a calendar, if you follow the directions precisely. There are also many types of spreadsheet templates, which will do various types of calculations for you, if you have the needed data. These templates only provide mathematical computation, of a specific type, if you have all the data. For example, if you want to know the breakeven point, based on your investment in a business, the right type of spreadsheet templates will help you with this calculation. However, if you want to know how to increase your profits, to get to the breakeven point, as quickly as possible your problem cannot be solved with spreadsheet templates. This is the kind of problem that can be solved with the aid of Template Aided Problem Solving. Problems of this nature do not have a predefined solution, and generally involve all of the following to solve: creativity, trial and error, experimentation. In addition, they require extensive searches, for various components needed to solve the problem, such as for information, equipment, experts, and technicians.

TAPS templates might have embedded or hyperlinked spreadsheets, especially for the problem mentioned above, but calculations are a very small part of the major problem. Generally, TAPS templates are for problems that involve some degree of uncertainty. Such problems can very often be solved many different ways, and when they cannot be solved the Template Aided Problem Solving methodology, can help you find the best possible alternative.

Another important concept to understand is when you are using a conventional template designed for a specific type of problem involving calculations, you supply the data, and a computer does the calculations, and works out the answer. With non-computational problems and Template Aided Problem Solving one or more individuals is working out the problem, and the computer is just providing assistance. The assistance that a computer can provide was already discussed, and one of the major functions were searching for the components needed to solve a problem. In general, whether you actually solve the problem you are working on, will be determined by your ability, the amount of studying you engaged in, the effort you invest, the amount of funding you obtain, and the abilities of the experts and technicians you obtain. Template Aided Problem Solving can help you maximize your chances in this regard.

Subtopic: Template Aided Problem Solving Methodology Involves Practice and the Learning Process

You should keep in mind that the template aided problem solving methodology, involves the learning process. This involves two types of learning. First you must understand, that when you use the templates, you must make a deliberate effort to use them in such a way that you learn about all the factors that relate to your problem or goal. The learning process is one of the most important components when dealing with difficult problems and goals, and one of the primary purposes of the templates is to help with the learning process. This includes learning how to obtain the components you need to obtain your goal. In addition, you must also realize that to effectively use the problem solving templates you must practice using them for a while. This should involve learning and practicing the skills needed to use the templates optimally. This also applies to any methodology or problem solving technique.

Subtopic: General Purpose Templates, for Template Aided Problem Solving Methodology

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There are three problem solving templates hyperlinked at the end of this subtopic. I listed these templates in order of their complexity. The simpler templates are for relatively simple problems, and the more complex templates are for difficult problems. To examine the templates, or use them, click on the following hyperlinks.

In addition, hyperlinked to this document there is a template folder, which contains a number of problem solving templates, including the following. The folder can be accessed by the following hyperlink.

Problem-Solving-Templates(zipped) Folder.zip

· This template is for relatively simple problems and goals that can probably be solved in less than one week. Click on the following hyperlink or icon to open the template:

Common Goals and Problems

· This template is for moderately difficult problems and goals that can probably be solved in one week to six months. To open, click on the following hyperlink or icon: Moderate challenges

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· This template is for very difficult problems and very challenging goals, which probably require more than six months to solve. Problems and goals in this category might not have any apparent solution. However, during the problem solving process, one or more solutions, or satisfactory alternatives may develop. Long-term Problem or Goal

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There is a folder linked to this document, which contains the above templates, as well as a number of other problem solving templates. To access the folder, click on the following hyperlink or icon. Problem Solving Templates

Subtopic: Specialized Problem Solving Templates

The problem solving templates, presented above, are general problem solving documents, for all types of problems and goals. Problem solving templates can be specialized for a specific purpose or goal. That is templates can be created to deal with a specific type of problem or goal, such as organizing a party, medical problems, engineering problems, etc. Problem solving templates can even be created for goals related to study and learning, such as learning trigonometry, studying speed reading, studying history, etc. This essentially, involves writing specialized instructions, and perhaps providing a set of specialized questions, to assist in creative thinking. This can also include detailed information comprising an entire course of study, in the form of text, sound recordings or video. Then relevant hyperlink connections are made to websites, software, files, sources of communication, cable or telephone connections to experts, or instructors, etc.

Subtopic: Personalize Template Aided Problem Solving

Each individual has his own set of unique circumstances and problems. This suggests in need for a personalized problem solving template. Thus, I will explain how to create personalized problem solving templates. The easiest way of making a personalized or specialized problem solving template, is to select one of the template that I created, and open a document from it. Than, modify it, so that it is optimized for your needs. This can involve, deleting everything that is irrelevant to your problem solving efforts, and adding relevant text, hyperlinks to websites, software, files, phone numbers, etc. When you have the document optimized for your needs, you should save it in a template format, so you can use it over and over again.

The easiest way to do this is to change the file extension to the template format. That is each software package that has templates generally has a separate file extension for the templates. For Microsoft Word, .dot is the file extension for templates. If you are working with an individual Microsoft Word file icon, just renamed the file, with the extension .dot. (See the note on the end of this page)

Alternatively, you can save the file in the usual way, but instead of clicking on save, click on save as, then a window will open, scroll down to Document Template (*.dot), and save it. When it is save this way, it is automatically stored in the Microsoft Word template folder.

All of the above is essentially the same for OpenOffice.com, but .stw is the template extension.

Note, to see the file extensions it is necessary to have the folder settings, in the Windows Control Panel set appropriately. Specifically, the following statement in the Folder Options should not have a check mark on it: Hide extensions for known file types. If you have to change the setting, go to the Windows Control Panel, then click on Folder Options, then click on view. Alternatively, you can try to use this hyperlink to the Folder Options, which I tested on my computer with Windows XP. Since each computer is configured somewhat differently, it may or may not work on your computer. After clicking on the following link you must minimize, close or exit this document (the electronic book) to see the Folder Options dialogue box. Click on this link: Hyperlink to the Folder Options. When you open Folder Options you must remember to clicked on view, to see your current settings.

Very important note: As previously stated, in the beginning of the book remember to hold down the Ctrl key when clicking on hyperlinks in Microsoft Word. If this is not done the hyperlinks may not operate in Microsoft Word. However, in OpenOffice.com this is not necessary, at least for the specific version I downloaded.

An alternative way of making a problem solving template that cannot be overwritten, is to record it on a CD-R. A CD-R can only record once, and they cannot be erased. If you open any type of document on a CD-R, and make changes, and try to save it, you must use a different drive letter from the CD. This usually involves saving it on the hard drive, with a different filename. For example, if you have this book, in the original CD-R format, the book and all the files and problem solving templates associated with it are read-only, and cannot be overwritten.

Another alternative way of creating read-only problem solving templates, is to simply open up the icon that is associated with the template (the file), and change the settings to read-only. To do this right click on the icon with the mouse, and a menu will open. Then scroll down to the bottom of the menu to the word properties, and click with the mouse. A dialog box will open. In this dialog box, look for the words: Read-only and place a checkmark by clicking on it with the mouse. Then click on Apply, and finally click on the word OK.

Subtopic: Specialized & Personalized Templates, Based On Knowledge & Experience Gained While Working On Problems

In general, when you are working with any type of problem solving template, whether it is a general, specialized, or personalized template, you should gradually modify it, based on your problem, and the trial and error process. This will often involve a gradual redesign of the entire template, based on your specific problem and needs. If all this is done correctly, it should result in a personalized template, which is specialized for the specific problem or goal you are working on. This process can result in templates that contain very useful information for you, such as telephone numbers of people and organizations that you find helpful, Web addresses, hyperlinks to files, documents and software that you used to solve problems. Thus, you should probably save the templates that result, for future use. This simply involve saving it into template format, as described above.

The above is a very important procedure that should be used when using problem solving templates. If this is not done the templates may not be very useful for you.

Subtopic: How to Create Hyperlinks and Icons in Problem Solving Templates

One of the very useful skills that you should master is the creation of hyperlinks. This was already discussed in the subtopic: Additional Information on Computerized Links This subtopic should be reviewed. You can obtain more detailed information about hyperlinks and how to create them, by doing an Internet search for creating hyperlinks, and how to create hyperlinks in Microsoft Word. You can also obtain information on hyperlinks, and other procedures, by looking in the help menu of the software that you are using.

Subtopic: Inserting Documents and other Objects from Diverse Software Packages

The general ideas in this subtopic was already discussed in the subtopic on: Additional Information on Computerized Links. However, it is discussed here from the perspective of problem solving templates.

Note, the word object means here any type of electronic document, icon, photograph, sound recording, video recording, file, or any entity that you see as a movable physical structure in the Windows operating system.

Another useful procedure to learn is how to insert objects from other software directly into your problem solving template. This is a very useful technique. You can insert mathematics software, spreadsheets, CAD software, directly into your template, or document. The software that is inserted in this way can generally carry out the functions it was designed to perform. For example, mathematics software, inserted into Microsoft Word, will be capable of carrying out mathematical calculations, directly from the Microsoft Word document. Another example will clarify this. An Excel Worksheet is inserted here below. You can carry out mathematical calculations with this worksheet, if you are familiar with Excel. This worksheet will automatically perform various mathematical calculations.

Excel Worksheet

There are a number of important principles to understand about inserted objects, such as the Excel worksheet presented above. First, when a template or other document is opened, you must have the software of the inserted object on your computer system. For example, if you do not have Excel on your computer system, you will not be able to use the Excel worksheet presented above. You will just see gray borders where I inserted the worksheets. When you want to use the inserted objects, such as the Excel worksheet, you click on it with the mouse, and use it in the same way that you normally use the software.

Most high-quality modern word processors have the functions needed to insert objects into their documents. However, there may be variations on what can be inserted. Both Microsoft Word and OpenOffice.com have the functionality needed to insert objects.

Now, all of the above, raises the question, how do you insert objects into a word processor document, such as Microsoft Word. The answer is start by clicking on insert, and then a menu will open. Scroll down the menu, to the word object and click on it, and another menu will open. Scroll down this second menu until you find the object you want to insert. If you cannot find the object you want to insert, click on the tab that states: create from file. Then click on brows, and search for the file you want to insert. If you want to create an icon of a file, you can do so, by placing checkmarks on link to file and on display as icon.

Incidentally, making icons in this way produces very good results, and they do not have the drawbacks of the techniques previously explained. For example, below there are icons for the Windows Paint program, and the Windows Explorer. If you click on them they should open these programs. When icons are made in this way it is not necessary to press Ctrl while clicking with the mouse, in Microsoft Word. In fact, these icons will not function if you press Ctrl.

Windows Paint program

Note, do NOT press Ctrl when clicking on these icons, because they will not function.

In OpenOffice.com the steps to insert an object into a document are similar to the steps for Microsoft Word. However, with OpenOffice.com after clicking on object, another menu opens, which gives you the choice of different categories of objects. For most purposes, click on OLE object, unless you see the type of file you want to insert.

Subtopic: Concluding Ideas on Template Aided Problem Solving

Theoretically it is possible to add far more than hyperlinks and icons to the problem solving templates. It is possible in theory to add buttons, menus, and virtual control dials. However, the hyperlinks provide all that is necessary for practical purposes.

In theory, it is possible to control just about anything with hyperlinks, because it can be configured to control directly or indirectly just about any type of software or computer. Computers can be set up to control everything from spacecraft, astronomical telescopes, microscopes, robots, and just about any type of experiment. It is relatively easy to put hyperlinks that control all of the above in a problem solving template.

In theory, problem solving templates can be created that are far more sophisticated than those discussed in this section. Templates can be created that have hyperlinks to vary sophisticated scientific equipment. Such problem solving templates could be an excellent scientific tool, and used for the most difficult research and engineering problems. It is quite simple to construct templates of this nature, with a large number of communication links. This would make it very simple for a large team of scientists and engineers to work together on the same problem, no matter where they are located. This would involve distributing the same problem solving templates, with all the relevant communication links through e-mail, to all the individuals working on the project. The templates could also be distributed from a website, by means of downloading.

A Very Important Topic: Multiple Approach Problem Solving Methodology

Note, I’m using the word individual in the following paragraphs to simplify the sentence structure, but keep in mind that the word stands for individual person, group, organization, nation, etc.)

Subtopic: Introduction to Multiple Approach Problem Solving

I compiled a number of steps, and procedures to solve problems, into a methodology, which I am calling Multiple Approach Problem Solving methodology. (I am also calling it MAPS methodology, or MAPS.) However, the steps involved with this methodology are not necessarily followed sequentially, and may be repeated many times over with difficult problems. The MAPS methodology employs when necessary a multidisciplinary approach, the writing process, the computer, and problem solving templates, which was discussed in the previous topic. (If you did not read the previous topic, you may not be able to understand the following text.)

The MAPS methodology is useful for all types of problems and goals. However, this methodology is especially useful for extremely difficult problems and goals, especially when there are no apparent solutions. When applying MAPS to simpler problems many of the steps can be simplified or skipped if they are irrelevant to the solution or goal.

The MAPS methodology requires a computer connected to the Internet, with Microsoft Word, or OpenOffice.com, or any other word processor that can open the MAPS problem solving template, when it is applied to difficult problems or challenging goals. If you do not have either of these programs, go to www.openoffice.org and obtain OpenOffice.com for free.

The MAPS methodology can be represented in 25 steps, which will become apparent in the following paragraphs. However, this does not imply that your problem can be represented or solved in a series of 25 steps. It just means that MAPS can be explained in a series of 25 steps. Simple problems can sometimes be solved in three steps, and complex difficulties and challenging goals can require hundreds, or thousands of steps, if not more.

It certainly is not necessary to master all the information presented here to successfully use the MAPS methodology. When dealing with simpler problems much of this material is usually unimportant. When dealing with complex difficulties or challenging goals use the MAPS problem solving template, linked to this book. The MAPS template illustrates the 25 steps and related information, with a series of questions and instructions. However, the large amount of information presented in the following pages should ideally be read also. This information will greatly increase your effectiveness with problem solving and goal attainment in general, even if you are not using the MAPS methodology.

Subtopic: How to Use the 25 Steps of the Multiple Approach Problem Solving Methodology

This subtopic provides a brief overview of how to use the MAPS methodology. A more detailed discussion of the MAPS methodology will be provided in a series of separate subtopics, which follow this one. However, the basic information provided here will not be repeated in the more elaborate discussion.

To use MAPS, skip the steps that obviously do not apply to your problem or goal. When dealing with complex problems or goals, before skipping a step, carefully assess the relevancy or irrelevancy of each step to your problem. The steps do not have to be followed in sequence, and very often the best sequence to follow is based on your individual situation.

It is generally more effective if you periodically return to various steps during the problem solving process, to update and improve your plans and goals, based on the knowledge and experience you gained during the problem solving process. This is extremely important for most complex problems and goals. In general, you should try to continuously improve everything involved with your problem solving effort on an ongoing basis, when dealing with long-term goals. This means trying to continuously improve your plans, goals, techniques, equipment, and availability of expert assistance. Keep in mind, when working on any problem or goal, the learning process takes place, and you develop experience from the trial and error process. This provides the needed information to make improvements in everything involved with the problem solving process. With long-term goals, your entire set of circumstances can change significantly before you obtain your objective, which can suggest better or more realistic approaches to problems and goals.

The change of circumstances that can take place during a long-term problem solving effort can involve your health, your financial situation, your skills, your knowledge, and the availability of equipment and expert assistance. If you keep this in mind during your long-term problem solving efforts, you can guide your destiny to some extent towards improvements, which will increase your overall chances of successfully obtaining your objectives. This involves making a conscious effort to improve your health habits, your knowledge, your skills, and everything else in your life. It also involves purchasing and maintaining the equipment needed to obtain your objectives. In addition, establishing a list of experts that relate to your objective, and developing good working relationships with them, can also be extremely important with some long-term goals.

When dealing with very complex or difficult problems and goals it is sometimes necessary to start out with a poorly defined goal and an incomplete or imprecise plan. This actually can be an effective strategy, if you do not have the information you need. The needed information and experience will generally be obtained once you start working on your problem for a while. This is especially the case if you study relevant information and utilize the trial and error process in your problem solving efforts.

An understanding of the above principles is an essential part of the MAPS methodology, but of course these ideas apply to all challenging problem solving efforts.

The individual steps involved with the methodology are outlined in the MAPS problem solving template, with a series of questions. When reading the steps you should keep in mind that they are meant to be procedures to consider, especially when faced with challenging problems and goals. It is not possible to provide a precise set of steps that will automatically lead you to obtain difficult objectives. However, the general set of procedures provided by the maps methodology can help you work out a precise set of steps to obtain your goal. It is also possible to obtain a difficult goal by working out a general set of imprecise steps, coupled with the trial and error process. Keep in mind that challenging problems and goals are difficult because we do not know how to solve them. However, by applying sophisticated methodologies we can significantly increase the chances of finding a solution, or at the very least the best possible alternative to the ideal solution.

A problem solving template designed for the MAPS methodology is hyperlinked to this book at the end of this paragraph. (I am calling this document the MAPS problem solving template, or MAPS template.) Examine the template, and then return to this document. Then read the remainder of this topic, which will provide the background knowledge to use the template effectively.

When you open a MAPS problem solving template, it is necessary to save the resulting document using a unique file name, which can relate to your problem or goal. You can obtain the template designed for the MAPS methodology by clicking on the following hyperlink or icon:

MAPS template

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Note, there is a considerable amount of additional information on the Multiple Approach Problem Solving Methodology in the following 25 subtopics, which relate to the individual steps of the MAPS methodology.

Subtopic: Step-1 Preparing the Problem Solving Template

The first step when dealing with difficult problems or goals, with the MAPS methodology, is to open and prepare a problem solving template. The templates contain all of the following:

· Instructions for the MAPS methodology

· A set of questions and instructions to stimulate creative thinking and guide the problem solving process

· A place to write answers to the questions, and create the documents needed for the problem solving process

· A place to keep notes that relate to your problem solving efforts, such as research information, results of various efforts, advice that you obtain from others, etc.

· A place to create tentative and/or actual plans needed to obtain your goal

· Internet links to search engines

· Internet links to telephone directory search engines

· Embedded spreadsheets that perform mathematical calculations

· Hyperlinks to software

To prepare the MAPS template first save it with a filename that relates to your problem or goal. Then, if you are not already totally familiar with the template, examine the entire template. Then carefully read the instructions.

After the above is completed answer the questions that are relevant to your goal in writing. Some or all of the questions can also be answered in your mind, especially for simpler problems. With more complex problems it is better to answer the questions in writing, and the more you write the better, from the perspective of stimulating creative solutions. This type of writing is very easy, because you are only writing to organize your thoughts, and to stimulate your creative thought processes. You do not have to worry about other people understanding your work. If you decide to use some of the material you are writing about, for other purposes, you can always revise it, at a later point in time.

A primary idea of the MAPS methodology is each time you use a template, gradually redesign it, so that it is optimized for the specific problem you are working on. This is done based on the research and studies of your problem, coupled with the trial and error process. This means, as you work with the maps template you should modify it so that it helps you obtain your goal or solution. This involves deleting questions, instructions, and other material that are irrelevant to your goal. When instructions, questions, hyperlinks, embedded objects, are no longer needed they should be deleted. If you accidentally delete anything that you need, you can always open a new template. You should add your own questions and instructions that will help you with your goal. You should also search for relevant links that will help you with your problem and add them to the template. Your links can include connections to websites, software, databases, word processor documents, electronic books, video and sound recordings, telephone numbers, computer to computer connections, as well as embedded objects, or anything that will help you solve your problem.

One of the primary objectives of the template is to help you organize the components you need to solve your problem, including the hyperlinks and embedded objects mentioned above. Generally this should include contact information or hyperlinks to organizations, experts, and other individuals that can help you solve your problem.

Subtopic: Step-2 Evaluating the Circumstances Surrounding the Problem or Goal

The second step of the MAPS methodology involves assessing the circumstances surrounding the problem or goal. The circumstances surrounding the problem or goal are usually extremely important. It may determine if the solution or goal is obtainable. The circumstances surrounding the problem include everything that might possibly affect the problem solving process or the attainability of a solution, except the specific factors that comprise the problem. Thus, the circumstances include the physical, social, and cultural, environment, as well as abilities, skills, and financial resources of the individual with the problem. It also includes the cultural components, values and psychological and emotional inclinations of the individual with the problem or goal. The important idea to understand is that the circumstances surrounding the problem can either make it easy, moderately challenging, difficult, very difficult, or impossible to obtain a solution. With some problems and goals the circumstances might have little or no effect on obtaining a solution. That is with certain goals the individual’s circumstances may not help or hinder obtaining a solution.

When the circumstances are making the problem solving effort difficult or impossible, the best strategy might be to work on improving the circumstances. Examples of adverse circumstances in relation to problem solving are seen amongst the developing countries. Problems that can easily be solved by most middle-class Americans can be almost impossible to totally rectify as a result of the adverse circumstances in many of the poorer countries of the world. To a lesser extent, you can find similar examples in the United States in some of the poorer communities.

The primary misconception about adverse circumstances in relation to problem solving is that the only factor is money. Often, there are many other difficulties, such as the unavailability of resources, inadequate education, cultural and subcultural beliefs and values and traditions that interfere with problem solving.

Another important concept is even under good environmental conditions, the circumstances surrounding a specific problem can make solutions and goals easy, moderate, difficult, or impossible. A good example can be seen with employment goals in the United States and other developed countries. The difficulty of obtaining employment, especially in a specific field, will vary with the state of the job market. This can result in extreme difficulty in obtaining employment at one point in time, and relative ease at finding a job at another point in time. A similar example can be found with obtaining credit four major purchases, such as for a home or automobile. Another example can be seen in starting and running a business. Even if the business is managed perfectly, with the greatest level of skill, it can still fail, if the circumstances surrounding the problem of maintaining the business are excessively competitive. This can happen when there are too many similar businesses in a given locality. This can result in either a shortage of customers, or many customers with excessively low profits, because of the very low prices needed to attract customers.

The circumstances surrounding the problem can be subdivided into two sets of factors, which I am calling the environmental set, and the other the personal set. The environmental set is discussed below, which is followed by a discussion of the personal set.

The environmental set includes all the factors that relate to the environment, such as availability of resources, experts, technicians, employment, medical services, and education, as well as the economic status of the community, cultural norms, values, beliefs, , the health status of the locality, and the degree of air and water pollution. These factors generally cannot be eliminated by an individual problem solver, unless he can move to a new environment, which is sometimes an optimum or very realistic strategy. An extreme example, in this regard, can be seen when girls and women who want to obtain an education in a culture that does not support education for females. This can be an almost insurmountable problem in extreme cases, which can be solved by changing the environment, in theory. In practice, girls and women in such cultures may not have the freedom and/or financial resources to leave their environment.

The personal set of factors include: the abilities, weaknesses, relative degree of health versus sickness, culture, subculture, personal beliefs and values, education, and financial status of the individual with the problem or goal. There are many other factors in the personal set, but the general principle should be apparent from the above. Financial problems, lack of education, and lack of language skills, are probably the most common weaknesses that interfere with problem solving amongst the disadvantage in the United States. In general, when dealing with problems that are difficult because of the nature of the personal set of factors, the best strategy might be to try to improve the factors that are interfering with the goal. A simplified example is a foreign-born individual that wants to obtain a college degree, but has inadequate English language skills, can probably solve his problem best by developing better English skills.

The examples that I used above, are obvious. In many real problem solving situations, adverse factors from the environmental set or personal set are not obvious. An adverse factor in one situation may be a neutral or supporting factor in another situation. For example, a foreign-born individual that does not speak English very well, might find certain employment goals easier in the United States, if he seeks jobs that required his native language. Another example is an uneducated individual that has a goal of finding an unskilled job, would possibly obtain it easier, then a college student that was seeking a similar job in the summer months. (This of course relates to the assumption that the college student was overqualified, would not be satisfied with the unskilled job, because he knows he can obtain better employment, and would probably quit the job in the fall. The unskilled worker would probably not quit, because he knows that he probably could not obtain better employment.)

Often, the most feasible way of dealing with the circumstances surrounding a problem is to define a goal that is realistic in the given set of circumstances. This involves considering the environmental and personal set of circumstances, and creating a goal that is obtainable under the given set of conditions. However, the realistic goal does not necessarily have to replace or eliminate the more challenging goal. Often it is quite feasible to conduct a problem solving effort aimed at a relatively easy goal, a moderately difficult goal, and a very challenging goal that is a long shot. Some examples will clarify the above ideas. A healthy individual that has had an excellent high school education, is very wealthy and living in the United States, probably can set relatively high educational goals, and successfully obtained them, such as a bachelor's degree, master’s degree, or Ph.D. However, an individual that is experiencing significant health problems, has not had an adequate elementary school education, and is very poor, and is living in an impoverished community would probably have little chance of succeeding at similar goals, but could probably obtained more modest educational goals. However, this realistic approach does not have to necessarily limit the chances of obtaining the more challenging educational goals. After the modest goals are obtained there is always a chance of obtaining the more challenging goals.

All of the above boils down to a few questions, which are as follows:

· What is the nature of the environmental set of factors, and how do they affect the goal? What are all the factors in the environmental set, and do any of them have any impact on the goal? Is it feasible to improve the environmental factors by moving to a different location?

· What is the nature of the personal set of factors, and how does it affect the goal? Is it feasible to improve the personal set of factors that are interfering with the goal attainment effort? What are all the factors in the personal set, and do any of them have any impact on the goal?

Subtopic: Step-3 Defining: the Problem, the Solution, and the Goal

The third step of the MAPS methodology involves describing or defining the problem, the solution or the goal. Defining the problem, the solution or the goal, might seem to be an obvious process that takes place automatically, but this is usually not the case, except with some of the simpler problems. Simpler problems and goals generally do not require much more than a simple statement or thought delineating the final objective. However, with complex challenges, the way the problem, solution or goal is defined can determine the remaining steps in the problem solving process. It can also determine whether or not success will be obtained. It should be understood that when you are faced with a difficult problem that the defined solution or goal is not necessarily the ultimate solution, but it might be the most realistic solution, or the best alternative resolution or goal.

The idea to keep in mind is that difficult goals and problems may or may not have obtainable solutions. There are many good strategies to deal with the uncertainty. If you think of difficult problem solving as a gamble, because you are betting, money, time, and effort on success, you can reduce the risk of losing by following the strategies in the following paragraphs.

One of the simpler strategies is to define your problem, solution or goal, and the best alternative to the goal. With some careful evaluation and thinking, it is often possible to carry out a problem solving effort focused on the goal as well as the best alternative to the goal. This idea is similar, but not identical, to the concept discussed in the previous subtopic.

Define the problem in terms of a solution or goal. For simpler problems you can do this in your mind. However, for moderately difficult an very difficult problems you should do this in writing, by answering the questions in the beginning of the MAPS template. This can involve a number of tentative goals, if you are not certain how to set an appropriate or realistic goal. The tentative goals can be refined into a more precise objective, after you have been working on the problem for a while, and have more information and experience.

Often it is better to consider a number of possibilities before setting a precise goal. It is sometimes better to set three goals, as previously explained, such as the following:

· An easy goal with an estimated chance of better than 90% of obtaining it.

· A challenging, but realistic goal, which can probably be obtain, if you invest a reasonable amount of effort, with a better than 65% chance of success

· A very challenging goal that you might be able to obtain, but the chances are less than one in five that you will

Another important strategy is: Ideally your goal or the solution to the problem should be defined in such a way that it solves more than one problem. This was illustrated in an earlier article in this book: An Introduction to Problem-Solving, Involving the Computer and Other Techniques. The problem used for illustration in this article was how to read this book if you do not have the time. Then the problem was defined in a more general way that would provide solutions to other problems: How can I manage to read large amounts of material, such as this book, when I do not have the time to do so? That is the idea here involves solving more than one problem, with the same effort or goal.

In addition to the above, ideally the goal attainment effort and related plans should be carried out in such a way that they result in other rewards, and benefits besides the main objective. For example in the previous article the technology used to solve the problem of dealing with excessively large reading assignments, provides other benefits that had nothing to do with the original problem. Specifically, the equipment needed to solve the problem included a portable CD or MP3 player, which has other applications, such as listening to music or relaxation recordings. In addition the effort involved in attempting to solve the problem indirectly involved the development of additional computer skills.

The concept presented above is not new. NASA’s space program is an excellent example. The effort to solve problems of space exploration resulted in the development of many technologies. These technologies have additional utility beside space exploration. Some of the more interesting devices include communication satellites, global positioning satellites that have very wide application including tracking aircraft, ships, and automobiles. In addition, the technology developed by the space program also resulted in the development of a large number of devices for medicine and industry.

Similar benefits often result from other science and engineering projects, besides the space program. Generally, all of the additional benefits happen more or less by random chance, and my idea is to try to do this deliberately. That is, try to deliberately solve problems, by delineating goals, and related plans that will provide additional benefits, besides just solving the problem. The most important idea to understand, here is that this is not always practical or even possible, but when it is, you should certainly consider this strategy.

Sometimes people inadvertently do just the opposite of the above, in their goal setting and problem solving strategies. Becoming aware of it, can help you avoid these dysfunctions. That is they inadvertently attempt to solve problems, by setting goals and creating plans that have an adverse effect on other aspects of life. One of the best examples of this can be seen in earlier attempts to solve problems of inadequate energy production, which involved the development of generating facilities that produce air pollution. Individuals, sometimes try to solve a problem or obtain a goal by investing an excessive amount of money, time, and effort, which harms other aspects of their lives. This sometimes happens when an individual tries to start and maintain a small-business. This is a long-term over investment, but there are also short-term over investments. An example is seen when someone wastes several hours on a relatively minor problem, which can involve losing sleep and skipping meals. This can sometimes happen to students with homework or mathematics problems. Long-term or short-term over investments are probably more likely to happen when the problem appears to be easier then it really is.

Obviously, it is important to consider all of the above when you are involved with the problem solving process, and are delineating goals and plans. This can be done by asking your self the following questions, and following the related instructions:

· Is there any way that I can solve additional problems with the same effort, by delineating the goal in a more general way?

· What would be the ideal solution to this problem?

· What is the most feasible solution for this problem?

· What is the easiest and quickest resolution for this problem?

· If I cannot solve this problem or obtain this goal, what would be the best resolution or alternative goal?

· How much time, money and effort should I invest to obtain this goal?

· How long will it take me to solve this problem?

· What would be the minimum amount of time needed to solve this problem?

· How long will it most likely take me to obtain this goal?

· If it takes me twice as long as I expect to obtain this goal, would it be worth it? If it takes three times longer would it be worth it, four times longer? Five times longer?

· How much time and money should I invest in this goal? At what point would the investment be excessive?

There are many types of goal setting strategies that are appropriate for different situations. The strategies and other details are discussed in separate articles in this book. A detailed understanding of these goal setting strategies are very advantageous to all types of problem solving.

Subtopic: Step-4 Analyzing and Examining From different perspectives

The fourth step of the MAPS methodology involves assessing your problem and goal in terms of its individual components, and from different perspectives and levels. This includes assessments of dynamics and interactions. Generally, this can be done from a large number of different perspectives and levels, which can sometimes reveal a large amount of information and possible solutions. This can sometimes be very productive, and at other times it does not really help with the solution. It depends on the problem and goal, how much information you have, and your ability to change or modify the factors that are involved. For example, we can analyze the weather in terms of individual factors. Perhaps we can also theoretically figure out ways of controlling and changing the weather, if we could manipulate these factors. However, there are no practical ways of moving, blocking, diverting, increasing or decreasing the factors that relate to the weather, because they are too large. Often we cannot manipulate the factors that relate to our problem because they are either too large or too small. An example of factors that are too small is seen with many diseases caused by viruses, or cancerous cells. Thus, with some problems step-4 can sometimes be skipped, especially with simple problems. However, with complex problems, it is really never advisable to skip this step, because it often leads to insight. Insight often helps problems from reoccurring, and sometimes leads to creative solutions.

The simplest way of starting an evaluation in terms of this step is to divide your problem or goal into a number of segments or factors. The segments can lead to a better understanding of your problem or goal, and suggest new solutions. The individual segments can sometimes be solved independently of the primary problem. A problem might not have an apparent solution, or an optimal solution. However, when the individual factors comprising the problem are examined individually, very often some or all of them can be solved independently. This can sometimes be done by allocating the different factors to specialists.

Another useful way of analyzing a problem is to try to determine all the components that may contribute to the problem, or may make it worse, or all the factors that might make it more difficult to obtain a goal. The opposite of the above can also be quite useful. This involves trying to determine all the factors that might lessen the severity of the problem, or all the factors that might increase the chances of obtaining a goal.

Analyzing and examining a problem from different disciplines and levels can also provide useful insights and potential solutions. For example, the common cold can be examined from all of the following:

· Psychology: The way people feel and behave when they have a cold

· Social psychology: The way the individual with a cold is treated by others, and how he interacts with other people

· Employment and productivity: How colds interfere with productivity, and absenteeism due to colds

· Physiology: The study of the body organs that are infected with the cold viruses, and the way the body responds to the condition.

· The virus: How the virus functions, reproduces, attacks cells, the internal structures and mechanisms of the virus

· Biochemistry: The chemical processes involved within the virus, and how the body chemistry changes in response to the illness

Perhaps the above would suggest that the optimal solution would probably be to figure out a way of interfering with the molecular or structural mechanisms of the virus. From the perspective of social psychology, it might be possible to reduce the spreading of colds by changing the way people with colds interact with others.

Another way of analyzing and examining is useful when dealing with people. When you are dealing with any type of problem or goal that involves people; it is extremely useful to try to determine how other people think and feel about various situations that relate to the problem or goal. This involves assessing what they believe at an intellectual level, how they feel at an emotional level, and their most likely future actions in relation to the situation that you are dealing with. For example, if you are trying to write advertising for a product, you can try to imagine yourself in the consumer’s position. This can involve several imaginary assessments, based on different segments of the population. Of course, if you can actually determine how people feel about the advertising and the product itself, it would be far better than just imagining. Another example is with job interviews, and just about any type of face-to-face negotiation, you might have an advantage if you can imagine how the other individual thinks and feels. However, with face-to-face interactions you have the option of testing out your assumptions by observation, and by tactfully asking appropriate questions.

Another useful perspective of analyzing and examining involves looking for trap-like situations, which are often primary difficulties with many types of problems. That is very often, difficult problems involve one or more complications that have a trap like quality. For example, an individual may be unable to work, because he needs surgery to correct medical problems, but he has no money, to pay for the surgery, because he is unable to work. Another example, an individual may have received an inadequate formal education, and he wants to rectify the problem, but he cannot get into any college, because he has an inadequate formal education. There can be a number of trap-like sequences associated with one problem. Generally, situations of this nature involve one factor-X that is dependent on another factor-Y, and you cannot rectify factor-X because it is dependent on factor-Y, and you cannot rectify factor-Y because it is dependent on factor-X.

Often, the best solution is to try to ease your way out of the trap in a series of steps, such as trying to improve factor-X slightly, so you can improve factor-Y. Once you have improved factor-Y slightly you can improve factor-X slightly more, etc.

Sometimes problems of this nature can also be solved by obtaining assistance from various agencies or individuals. If we return to the first example, an agency or individual providing financial assistance for surgery, would correct the employment problem. Representing this idea in a general sense involves the following: factor-X is dependent on another factor-Y, and you cannot rectify factor-X because it is dependent on factor-Y, and you cannot rectify factor-Y because it is dependent on factor-X, thus you must rectify factor-X and/or factor-Y from one or more additional factors, such as factors-A, factors-B, or factors-C. The question to ask your self in such a situation is how can I find alternative ways of partially or totally rectifying factor-X and/or factor-Y?

With certain types of problems, there is a vicious cycle such as factor-X worsening factor-Y and factor-Y becomes more problematic and it worsens factor-X. The solution is to first try to stop the vicious cycle by some means, which will probably require additional factors (such as assistants from various organizations and/or individuals) similar to the situation mentioned above. Then the problem can be further evaluated and rectified.

Problems can also be analyzed and examined from the perspective of dysfunctional thought patterns, believes, and strategies. That is often people have problems that they can't solve because of the way they think, what they believe and the strategies they use. It is very common to find people with problems, who cannot solve them simply because they believe that there are a few predefined ways of solving the problem, which they tried, and which failed to result in a solution. This kind of dysfunctional thinking probably happens to all of us with some problems, especially at the beginning of a complex goal attainment effort. It generally takes place inadvertently, and it usually eliminates all the strategies that would solve the problem. A primary dynamic behind this difficulty is we are often used to doing things in certain customary ways, and it can be difficult to switch to a new method, especially if it requires some learning and practice. Thus, this dysfunctional pattern prevents creativity and the implementation of creative solutions.

Based on the above discussion, the important idea to keep in mind is often a major part of problem solving involves a psychological process, consisting of breaking habitual ways of thinking, acting, reacting, and doing various tasks. A useful strategy to deal with this kind of difficulty, is to analyze and examine your problem or goal and related thoughts, believes and behaviors. Make a list of various types of dysfunctional thoughts, believes and strategies that may be preventing you from solving the problem. Then try to gradually force yourself, over a period of time, to try new methods, even if it feels quite uncomfortable. This should be done even if the new methods require learning and practice, and are initially less efficient. This generally requires persistence, prolonged practice over a period of weeks and months, experimenting with new strategies to solve your problem or obtain your goal.

Subtopic: Step-5 Multidisciplinary Approach

The fifth step of the MAPS methodology involves examining your problem or goal from different disciplines. This can involve dividing your problem into different segments that relate to specific disciplines. For example, if your problem involved designing and marketing a new car, the problem can be divided into engineering, industrial psychology, and marketing. Each of the segments of your problem can be given to experts in suitable disciplines. Of course, it is also possible to apply your own knowledge of the relevant disciplines to your problem, especially when it is not financially feasible to hire a team of experts in a number of fields.

A slightly different multidisciplinary approach, involves the assessment of the entire problem from a number of disciplines. This can also include the presentation of the entire problem to a number of experts from different fields.

Generally speaking, with difficult problems the multidisciplinary approach would involve both of the strategies mentioned above. It probably should also include detailed research and study of the problem from different disciplines. The multidisciplinary process often should involve searching for experts and organizations from different disciplines that might be able to solve all or part of the problem, or provide insight, or other types of assistance.

Generally, most problems and goals, involve the physical, social and biological sciences, at some level. This includes psychology, social psychology, sociology, physiology, medicine, physics and chemistry. For example, if your goal is to obtain a college degree, then the multidisciplinary factors include the following:

· The psychological components include your level of desire to obtain your goal, your self-discipline, your emotional responses to various types of stress, and any habits you have that might adversely interfere with your time and concentration.

· The social psychological factors include the way you interact with other people, and the way other people interact with you. This includes how other individuals perceive you, what they think about you, and how they evaluate you. This also includes your overall ability to interact and communicate with other people.

· The sociological factors include the attitude of your culture and subculture, including your family and friends, toward your goal of completing college. Some cultures and subcultures are very supportive of educational goals. However, even in the United States, some subcultures (such as some working-class and poor families) may not support the goal of advanced education for everyone.

· The physiological and medical factors include your overall physical condition and energy level, and the relative degree of your health and any medical problems that you have. All of this can influence to varying degrees your ability to carryout your goal attainment effort.

· The factors that relate to physics and chemistry are often not obvious, with personal problems and goals. Often they are not very problematic or significant with most personal goals, such as obtaining a college degree, but with most industrial problems they are extremely important. In the case of the example that we are dealing with, these factors are usually not very significant. However, they include the room temperature and the level of air pollution in your environment. Adverse temperatures and polluted air can interfere with your ability to study and learn to varying degrees.

Subtopic: Step-6 Psychological Factors

The sixth step of the MAPS methodology involves psychological factors. As previously implied, a general rule is all problem solving efforts involve various psychological components, regardless of the nature of the goal. For example, if the goal is an engineering project, involving the design and production of a new car, there are a large number of psychological factors involved. The most obvious, is the emotional and intellectual state of the engineering team and technicians that are working on the project. The car also must be designed to conform with various psychological components of the driver, such as the physical looks of the car, and the layout of controls. Selling the car to the general public involves many psychological factors. With personal problems, the psychological factors can even be more numerous, even if the problem is not perceived to be psychological in any way. In general, all problems tackled by humans have psychological components, even if they are not considered psychological problems. If this is understood, an assessment of the psychological factors involved with the problem, can lead to better solutions.

Many types of challenging goals and problems are anxiety provoking. This can greatly interfere with problem solving efforts. If you realize this, there are many ways of controlling anxiety, which are briefly discussed in various parts of the book. However, if you are interested in this topic, you should do an Internet search for relaxation recordings, hypnosis, self hypnosis, and relaxation techniques.

There are of course, problems that are primarily psychological in nature, but often these problems have environmental, social, cultural, financial, physiological or medical factors contributing to the difficulty. Thus to solve such problems might require more than psychological methods, to deal with the contributing non-psychological factors. Another general rule is: almost all psychological problems involve at least some non-psychological components. Without this understanding, problems of this nature may be unsolvable.

Most psychological processes, and methods to deal with problems, involve a type of learning. However, the learning process in this regard involves more than just the intellect. I devised a useful theoretical model in this regard, which involves the division of the human mind into three categories. I call the three categories: the intellectual mind, the emotional mind, and the biological mind. The intellectual emotional and biological minds each exhibit their own style of learning, behavior, and reactions to stimuli. However, they usually function together, but one of the three minds will usually dominate, our behavior at a specific point in time. This concept is explained in the following paragraphs:

THE INTELLECTUAL MIND: When we are wide awake and dealing with daily activities in a logical way, the intellectual mind is dominating. When we are engaged in logical reasoning or making logical decisions our intellectual minds is dominating. The intellectual mind involves the conscious learning process and deliberate behavior. We can generally control this aspect of our mind, quite well. We can explain why we carryout behaviors stemming from the intellectual mind. When we deliberately set out to learn new methods and develop new skills it primarily involves the intellectual mind. Our decisions and plans primarily involve the intellectual mind.

The intellectual mind obviously learns by listening, reading, study, experiencing, observation, trial and error, and practice. The intellectual mind learns rapidly. A single statement can indicate danger or safety to the intellectual mind.

THE EMOTIONAL MIND: When we are responding emotionally, such as when we are laughing, when we are angry, when nervous or fearful, our emotional mind is dominating. The emotional mind involves our feelings, and our emotional responses to various situations and experiences. Often we cannot explain the reactions and behaviors controlled by the emotional mind. For example, sometimes people experience anxiety, phobic responses, or lose their temper, and they insist that they lost control. They might acknowledge that their behavior or emotional responses did not make sense, or was dysfunctional. However, they may repeatedly behave and respond the same way when they are confronted with certain situations. The power and relative degree of independence of the emotional mind, becomes apparent when you talk to people that are suffering from phobias.

The emotional mind primarily learns by experiencing and observing over a period of time. The emotional mind learns much slower than the intellectual mind. Relearning process with the emotional mind can be very difficult, and time-consuming, which becomes apparent when we study people who have phobias. It can sometimes be difficult to communicate with the emotional mind with verbal statements. For example, if you explain to an individual with cluster phobia that elevators are safe, and there is nothing to be frightened of when entering an elevator, they will probably agree with you, but they probably would still be too frightened to use the elevator. Another example is: if you explain the serious dangers of cigarette smoking, to a smoker he will probably not develop a fear that will stop him from smoking. To communicate with or teach the emotional mind requires repetitive experience and prolonged practice. This usually involves an association between two stimuli, or experiences, repeated over an extended period of time.

THE BIOLOGICAL MIND: Our biological mind dominates when we are sleeping, become sleepy, cannot sleep even though we want to, and when we wake up spontaneously. Our biological mind controls variations in body chemistry and hormone levels in relation to time, stimuli, and activity. The biological mind controls the 24-hour variations in body temperature, and blood pressure. The biological mind influences the level of our energy and alertness throughout the day.

The biological mind does not respond to or learn with verbal statements. The biological mind response to the specific activities we are engaged in, in terms of physiological needs. For example, if we run, it will automatically increase our heart rate and breathing rate. If we sit down, or lie down, and deeply relax ourselves, it will release tension in the muscles, and slow the heart and breathing rate.

When, specific activities are carried out at the same time each day, the biological mind gradually learns. If you go to sleep every night at 11 PM, and wake up at 7 AM, it will learn to adjust your blood pressure, body temperature, and body chemistry accordingly. If you exercise at the same time each day, it might prepare your body for exercise, just before you start the exercises. If you eat three meals at the same time each day the biological mind will also learn to prepare your body to take in food and digest it.

If you have a schedule that is very inconsistent, sleeping, eating, and exercising at different times each day, your biological mind will be very confused. It will fail to control your body temperature, blood pressure, and other biological processes in a way that would reinforce the activities you are engaging in. For example, when you want to go to sleep, your biological mind may not properly prepare your body for sleeping, which would make it very difficult to sleep. When you want to wake up, you might have considerable difficulty, and you might be quite sleepy or lacking in energy throughout the day. In modern society, the biological mind does indeed become confused to varying degrees, especially with people that have irregular schedules, or individuals that travel between time zones. This of course results in the consequences mentioned above.

When an individual becomes chemically addicted to a drug, such as nicotine, barbiturates, cocaine, morphine, the biological mind is involved. This involves a biochemical adjustment to the foreign chemical, and when it is not present, there are adverse responses. According to this theoretical perspective, addiction involves the learning process of the biological mind, where a drug is repeatedly released into the body. Breaking the addiction involves a relearning process of the biological mind, involving a readjustment of body chemistry, without the drug, which takes place over a period of time.

An understanding of the above theoretical model can provide some insight that will help with many types of problem solving efforts that involves at least some psychological factors. Solving problems of this nature often involve one or more of the following:

· Correcting dysfunctional misconceptions, beliefs and strategies. This primarily involves the intellectual mind. It can involve the development of insight and awareness of dysfunctional thoughts and behavior. The emotional and biological minds will probably also be involved, but to a lesser degree.

· The breaking of bad habits This can involve the development of the awareness of factors that initiate the bad habit, the adverse consequences of the habit This involves the intellectual mind, but it also can involve the emotional and biological minds, to varying degrees, depending on the nature of the habit.

· The learning and practice of functional behaviors and strategies This can be done to replace dysfunctional habits, strategies and behavior patterns. This involves the intellectual mind, and usually to a much lesser extent the emotional and/or biological minds.

· Correcting dysfunctional emotional responses This can involve a number of techniques. One technique in this regard, is progressive desensitizing, which basically involves a gradual exposure to anxiety provoking situations, in a relaxed state, with the goal of eliminating the anxiety. This primarily involves the emotional mind, and to a lesser extent a logical biological and intellectual minds.

Subtopic: Step-7 Social Factors

The seventh step of the MAPS methodology involves social factors. Any problem or goal that involves or effects any other individual, or organization, beside the problem solver, involves social factors. This includes the norms, values, traditions, beliefs, of the individuals you are dealing with. Social factors that interfere with problem solving, include traditional ways of thinking, and carrying out specific tasks. This can involve rejection of potentially effective problem solving methods and strategies, because they are different than the traditional methods.

Sociological factors that are relevant to the problem solving process include language, culture, and subculture, especially in relation to international commerce. In some localities, such as New York City, many of the interactions between people involve cultural or subcultural differences, which can cause problems if they are not taken into account.

Most organizations, especially large ones, more or less comprise their own society, with its own culture and subcultures. An understanding of this concept is very useful when dealing with organizations, especially during the problem solving process.

Very often, the problem solving process, and related goals must be tailored or modified to fit the cultural and subcultural requirements of the social system and individuals that you are working with.

In general, when social factors are likely to be significant to the problem solving process, it is advisable to study the social components involved with the individuals or society that you are dealing with. If the society is a foreign culture, the study process is likely to be more difficult than if you are dealing with an organization or subculture in our society.

The questions to ask yourself and other individuals involved with the problem solving effort, include: What are the relevant languages, cultures, subcultures, norms, values, traditions, philosophies, and religions? How are people in this culture, subculture, organization, or group likely to perceive the various components, plans and activities of my work and problem solving effort? As you obtain information in regard to the above questions, appropriate modifications and adjustments should be made in the relevant components, plans, activities, communication style. Often, communication style is the most important component, especially in relation to the avoidance of misconceptions. Sometimes the best communication strategy, involves the demonstration of results, especially successful results.

Subtopic: Step-8 Values

The eighth step of the MAPS methodology involves values. Values could have been classified with the psychological or social factors, but I am presenting the concept separately, because it is extremely important for many types of problem solving. On the surface, values do not appear to have much to do with problem solving. However, the following will clarify this relationship.

If we examine values in our society, or even in other cultures, in simple terms of good and bad, there is likely to be consistency amongst most people. Most people believe that higher education is very important. Most people believe that a lean healthy body is desirable. Most people believe that cigarette smoking, and illicit drug use is highly undesirable. Almost everyone believes that a concern for the well-being of others is important. However, when you introduce the concepts of quantity, or relative degree of importance, and assess values in terms of behavior, you no longer find this consistency. This will be clarified in the following paragraphs.

First, I and using the word values, in a general sense, and it relates to the relative degree of importance that an individual, group, organization, places on an entity, in terms of their behavior and goals. Values relate to the goals we choose. For example, two individuals might both agree that a college education is extremely important, but one may consider immediate employment even more important. The difference in values will direct one individual toward college, and the other individual towards employment. This difference in values could perpetuate a lifelong condition of poverty for one individual and a middle-class lifestyle for the college bound individual. Two people might both consider ideal body weight to be extremely important, but one individual might place a higher value on the immediate satisfaction provided by food. This difference in values might result in obesity for one individual, and an ideal body weight for the other. This is especially the case, if the first individual is adverse to the stress produced by physical exercise, which also relates to values. That is people that engage in physical exercise, have certain values that are different in degree to those who do not exercise.

The important idea to keep in mind is that I am using the word values in terms of behavior. This includes the way the behavior is carried out, in terms of producing a desirable or undesirable impact. Based on this concept, verbal statements are not the primary assessment criteria of values. That is the actual behavior that the individual carries out and the resulting manifestations of the behavior represent the values, based on the definition that I am using here.

The reason I am focusing on behavior is because that is what counts from the perspective of problem solving. Whether someone develops a problem, solves a problem, or obtains a goal is based on behavior.

Values can also determine what acceptable goals are, and what constitutes an acceptable solution to a problem. Solving problems often involves some sacrifice, of time, money, and effort, and whether the sacrifice is worthwhile is determined by values. Extreme examples of sacrifice are often seen in medicine. Medical procedures are often left up to the patient, and the patient's values determine the treatment. This can involve major surgery, versus medication, or living with an uncomfortable condition to avoid the risks of surgery. Patients are sometimes faced with choices of sacrificing a body organ, for the hope of extending life, or preventing the spread of cancer. This sometimes involves severe sacrifice in the quality of life, in exchange for the hope of extending life. Medical treatments in this category often involve both a sacrifice and a gamble, because the treatments might extend life, but they may also lead to an earlier death. Thus the values of the patient in this regard should be the primary determining factor in the course of treatment. However, the important idea is that all of the above to at least some degree applies to all types of problem solving. That is the values of the individual that has the problem or goal should determine the optimum course of action.

Thus, an understanding of the role of values in problem solving is very important if you are trying to help people with their problems or goals. Their values can be very different than yours. Values that you believe our very important, may be considered relatively unimportant by the people you are trying to help. However, the situation is usually even more complicated than this, because the issue is usually the relative degree of importance of the values, especially in terms of behavior. This generally is not revealed in terms of verbalizations, but it reveals itself in terms of ongoing behavior patterns.

Values are often based on beliefs, and the beliefs may be based on the culture or subculture of the individual. When the underlying beliefs, which the values are based on, are incorrect, education may result in a change of values. For example, in the past most people considered cigarette smoking to be unhealthy, but they were unaware of just how severely unhealthy it was. Thus they continued to smoke, until they were educated by massive antismoking campaigns, and articles in the news media.

This general concept illustrated with the problem of cigarette smoking, is very important, and the idea to keep in mind is values are often at least partly based on knowledge, lack of knowledge, or on misconceptions.

If we apply the theoretical model of psychology that was presented above to values, it becomes apparent that values involve the intellectual mind, but most values often involve the emotional mind. In addition, in the case of values based on inborn biological needs, such as for food and water the biological mind is also involved. Biochemical addictions are also based on values of the biological mind, which developed from the continuous exposure of certain drugs.

Self-destructive behavior patterns can sometimes be traced to dysfunctional values, or conceptualized in such terms. It should be understood, that the way I am using the terminology values are not necessarily good, healthy, moral, bad, unhealthy or immoral.

Values can also be important if your goal affects other people. For example, many large-scale industrial projects affect other people in significant ways. The adverse or positive response to such project can be a direct result of the values of relevant individuals and groups. However, response can also be related to personal interests. For example, the creators and advocates of large-scale industrial project might gain financially from the project. The adversaries of the projects might be concerned about losing their homes because of the planned location of the project.

A good example of values in regard to large-scale industrial projects is the relative degree of willingness to risk the environment, to obtain energy. Some individuals would be more inclined to take the risk of a nuclear accident, to obtain energy. Other people would be willing to take the risk of air pollution and use coal as a source of energy.

When your problem involves negotiations with others, values can be extremely important, but usually the primary factors also involve a difference of position and interest. For example, in a labor dispute, the employer and employees may in fact have the same values, but both parties have conflicting interests. The idea here is to determine what constitutes a difference of values, and what represents a difference of position and interest.

Subtopic: Step-9 The Law

The ninth step of the MAPS methodology involves the law and legal issues. Many problems involve at least some legal issues, even if the problem itself is not illegal problem. In general, anytime your problem solving effort involves a government agency, any organization, or other people, there will probably be some legal issues that are involved. The legal issues can be in your favor, such as the availability of government services such as financial aid for college. This can involve learning how to apply for the relevant government services or grants. Contracts of any type of course involve legal issues.

A major difficulty with our complex legal system is there are a huge number of rules and regulations, which are not necessarily based on simple commonsense reasoning. Thus, you can be violating the law without knowing it, in some cases, especially in business. The idea to keep in mind is that even if you are not doing anything immoral, or damaging to another individual, you still might be inadvertently violating some aspect of the law. Often, it is probably advisable to have a lawyer examine plans before they are implemented, to avoid any legal problems. This is not always feasible for small businesses, and for personal problems, because of the high-cost of legal services. However, carefully examining your own plans, and contacting relevant agencies for information can be helpful in preventing legal problems. A good strategy is to replace any section of a plan that might possibly be in violation of the law, or might be in a gray area.

Anything in a gray area can be interpreted or misinterpreted to be a violation of law, depending on who is reading it, and their political and philosophical perspective. A gray area can be interpreted as legal (not violating the law) at one point in time, and as a violation at a later point in time. Thus, it usually makes sense to avoid gray areas.

Another sensible strategy is to avoid conflict, which can sometimes lead to expensive and time-consuming legal conflict. This includes not signing contracts that you cannot fulfill, which is commonsense. However, you should also not sign contracts with other people if there is any doubt that they will have difficulty carrying out the contract. The only exception to this is, if it will not be a serious issue if they cannot fulfill their agreement.

All of the above can be summed up with the following statements: Learn the legal issues that relate to your problem, and check your plans and remove anything that can possibly be interpreted or misinterpreted to be a violation of law. Avoid conflict of all types, which can result in legal issues.

Subtopics Step-10 The Biological Sciences

The tenth step of the MAPS methodology involves biology. An understanding of problem solving in terms of the biological factors can greatly increase your chances of solving difficult problems.

Most problems carried out by human beings involve biological factors at some level. The reason for this is simply, the fact that human beings are biological entities. This means that the biological state, including: physical condition, level of endurance, relative degree of health or illness, of all the individuals involved with the problem or goal can be relevant, and can affect the problem solving effort, and determine whether an optimum solution is obtained. Often people that are faced with very difficult problems and goals, sacrifice good health habits, so they will have more time to invest in the problem solving process. In addition, poor health habits might result from the psychological stresses that can result from certain problem solving efforts. All of which greatly reduces the chances of solving the problem, if it results in illness or if it weakens the body in anyway.

There are of course problems and goals that are primarily biological in nature. This includes all health problems, and many types of industrial, agricultural and scientific problems. Most industrial problems potentially have some biological consequences, if they effect the environment or if they might affect the health status of the workers.

The idea to keep in mind is to consider the biological components, even if the problem is primarily non-biological in nature. This means evaluate and eliminate any health risks associated with the problem solving process.

Subtopics Step-11 The physical sciences

The eleventh step of the MAPS methodology involves the physical sciences. Many problems involve the physical sciences at some level, including chemistry, physics, electronics, computer science, and engineering. This is simply because the physical sciences deal with the basic building blocks that comprise all entities. The fundamental building blocks include electrons, neutrons, protons, atoms, and molecules. The physical sciences also deal with the dynamics of these particles, and energy that is involved with all machines and actions. However, there are many types of problems where physical science factors can be partly or totally ignored. For example, if your problem involves organizing a party or fixing a computer, you do not have to be concerned about the chemistry or subatomic particles involved with the process. However, if you are in the business of manufacturing computer parts, or creating plastic party utensils, the physical science factors will be relevant.

When dealing with difficult problems and goals studying the problem in terms of the relevant physical sciences can lead to unforeseen solutions. I have found that the insight provided by the study of the physical sciences can help with all types of problem solving. The insight allows you to understand and perceive problems and everything else in terms of its underlying and/or fundamental dynamics and structure. This allows for creative solutions. For example, if you examine a 1000 ton junk pile of rotting wood and old newspapers, you may see a mess, or a health hazard. However, if you are trained in chemistry, you will see a source of carbon, hydrogen, and other elements that can be converted to various types of useful chemicals, including plastics, alcohols, and even fuel oil. (Incidentally the only significant component in such conversions would be economics, because it requires expensive equipment, employees, and energy to make such conversions.)

Subtopics Step-12 Mathematics and Logic

The twelfth step of the MAPS methodology is to consider the mathematical and logical factors that relate to your problem or goal. I am using the terms mathematics and logic in a very general sense in this subtopic. Sometimes these factors may not be relevant, but they are very often quite important, even with personal problems. For example, if your problem involved preparing and organizing a party, there would be many mathematical factors that would be relevant. This would include the number of people that are likely to attend the party, and the quantity of each type of food that is required, such as candy and cake. The number of chairs, and eating utensils needed would also be important. The total cost of all the items needed to run a party would be another potentially important calculation. There would also be logical factors that relate to the party. This would include how to arrange the table, chairs and other furniture. How to arrange the speakers of a stereo to produce the best sound in a crowded room is another logic problem. However, with problems of this nature, there is often the option of foregoing precise mathematical and logical computation. This is the case with most personal problems. However, with industrial, business and scientific problems precise mathematics and logic are almost always essential.

From the perspective of problem solving and goal attainment, mathematics and logic can be divided into two categories, which I am calling precise evaluation, and intuitive approximation. Precise evaluation is the ordinary way of working with mathematics and logic problems. It involves precise measurements, evaluations and calculations. This can involve arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, diagrams, flowcharts, formal logic, pencil and paper, a calculator, a computer, spreadsheets, and various types of mathematics software. Intuitive approximation does not require any of the above, and it does not even require any formal training. I will first discuss Intuitive approximation and then discuss precise evaluation in the following paragraphs.

Specifically, I am using the term intuitive approximation to mean the complex internal mathematical and logical approximations that are carried out by animals and humans primarily by the central nervous system and the various sense organs. For example, we can look at an object across the room, and intuitively no how far away it is from us. If it is a familiar object, we can also usually give estimates of its size, weight and its physical strength. We can also answer questions about the physical properties of the object, such as the following: can you lift the object with two hands? Can you lift it with one hand? What would happen if the object was dropped from a distance of one foot, four feet, and eight feet? Can you crush the object with your hands? In addition, your nervous system and sense organs can carryout the complex approximations needed to precisely manipulate the various muscles in the precise way, with very precise levels of force needed to grab the object and lifted up.

There are a very large number of complex mathematical and logical approximations carried out by human beings and animals in this category. The above was one simple example.

There are many examples of intuitive approximation that can be seen in animals. Especially good examples are seen in birds. They can navigate long distances; they can control their wing speed in precise and coordinated ways, which maintains both balance and flight. Most mammals, especially cats and dogs, can control their body muscles and limbs precisely during a fall or jump, so they land on their limbs, without damaging their bodies. Cats, dogs and most other animals appear to have a good sense of distance and direction. Animals will usually allow humans to approach them within certain relatively precise distances. Pigeons and squirrels in city parks will often allow people to approach them within three feet, because they often receive food from people. In the wilderness, they would probably demand a greater distance from humans, unless they had the experience of being fed by people. The point here is that there appears to be a very precise minimum distance that these animals intuitively approximate to be safe and appropriate.

However, humans appear to be superior to animals in the ability to carry out intuitive approximations, in most but not all areas. Most people can estimate time fairly accurately. They can often evaluate complex cause and effect sequences before they take place. They can carryout fairly accurate measurements of various types. This can sometimes be seen with experience cooks, who may not need to measure ingredients with measuring cups or scales. They can look at a turkey, and no how much stuffing to prepare.

Thus, animals and humans essentially have an inborn computing device that carries out a large number of mathematical and logical approximations with the fairly high degree of precision. Most of these approximations are carried out very rapidly. For example, if you are falling, all of the complex approximations involving muscle movements and various levels of force applied to each limb and body part are carried out in a fraction of a second. The primary idea here is to try to become more aware and familiar with your internal computing device. This would very likely provide additional utility for your device with problem solving and goal attainment.

Try to use your internal computing device as much as possible on a conscious level. Try to make estimates of mathematical and logical problems, before carrying out conventional computations. Of course, you should not use your internal computing device as a substitute for your calculator or computer, especially where precision is important.

A primary component of the internal computing device is feedback and correction. That is our intuitive approximations are heavily based on trial and error learning. We learn from experience how to estimate time, forces, muscle movements, the distance, speed, and everything else that we estimate. The more experience we have in this regard, the better our intuitive approximations will be. If we keep this in mind, and if we remember to check out our intuitive approximations for accuracy whenever possible, we will improve our ability to make accurate estimates.

Closely related to our ability to carryout accurate intuitive approximations is our perceptual skill. (I am using the word perception in a very general sense, and it refers to the detection of anything that can be experienced with our sense organs, including internal sensations.) The ability to perceive with skill is learned. This becomes apparent, if you listen to people speaking a foreign language. You may not be able to perceive the individual words, as they speak, but they can perceive each word as a separate entity, with meaning. If you ever studied any type of technical skills, such as automotive repair, computer hardware and circuitry, or electronics, when you first looked at the relevant mechanisms you probably could not identify the individual components. However, after a period of study and experience with the field of study, specific parts become clearly perceptible. An understanding of this principle can help in many areas of problem solving, especially with intuitive approximations. To estimate accurately, you must develop the ability to perceive the entity that you are estimating. This also is learned by the trial and error process, coupled with various types of study.

Your internal computing device can probably produce more accurate results, by carrying out repeated evaluations. For example, if you want to determine how far away an object is from where you are standing, you can look at the object from different angles, and make a number of estimates. This can involve taking an average of the estimates, selecting the estimate in the middle range, or just selecting the estimate that you believe is the best approximation.

A very useful general principle is: when using intuitive approximations in a specific situation try to determine if an underestimation or an overestimation would be more problematic. Then if an underestimation is more problematic increase your intuitive estimates to a level that would provide a good margin of safety, and reduce or eliminate the risk of an underestimation. When, you are faced with situations where over estimations can be problematic, modify your intuitive assessments accordingly. In this situation you should reduce your estimates, to provide an adequate safety margin, and to reduce or eliminate the possibility of over estimations. Some examples will clarify this idea. If your problem involves planning a formal dinner for 10 to 15 people, and you are not absolutely sure how many people will show up, you will probably be better off with over estimations. That is an underestimation of the number of chairs, table settings, food and beverages, could be quite problematic, but an over estimation would be of little consequence. Extra food can always be refrigerated, and used at a later point in time.

Underestimation in many situations can be quite problematic, especially in construction and engineering. (Of course, precise mathematical methods should be used in engineering, but this is a good example nevertheless.) For example, if you are building a house, and you are not sure how many support beams to provide, an over estimation will do no significant harm. Extra support beams would cost a little extra money. However, an underestimation of the number of support beams would risk life and property.

Over estimations are sometimes also quite problematic, and the best example that I can think of is overestimating the need for medicine. Another example is overestimating the ability and inclination of our selves and others to complete various tasks, especially within specific time limits. This type of over estimation is very common, and it can sometimes result in serious difficulties for all involved. Thus, this is another area where an underestimation would be preferable, which suggests overestimating the time needed to complete a project might be desirable. Alternatively, overestimating the number of personnel needed to complete the project, within a certain time limit, might be desirable. All this of course, assumes that completion of the project within the predicted time frame is critical. However, there are many situations, where this is not very important, and spending additional funding to hire more personnel, to ensure completion of the project on time, may be even more problematic.

The primary advantage that intuitive approximation provides is ease and the ability to carryout a large number of approximations very quickly. There are many types of problems where precise measurements are not feasible, and a large number of approximations are needed immediately. These types of problems generally are not dealt with in conventional mathematical terms. Problems in this category range from cleaning the house, making basic repairs, such as plumbing, and electrical repairs.

Essentially, all the activities that animals and human beings carry out involve intuitive approximations, especially in relation to the following: distance, direction, force, speed, logical assessments that relate to coordination and movement of limbs, and logical assessments that relate to the geometry of the surrounding environment.

Precise evaluation is of course far more accurate than intuitive approximation. However, the important idea to understand is that these two processes usually serve different functions, but there can be situations where either method is useful. If we returned to the above example of a party, it is possible to use either precise evaluation or intuitive approximation, because mathematical precision is not absolutely necessary. There are many situations that we are faced in daily living, on the job, in business, management, industry, and in science, where either method can be used. However, as previously discussed in a different context, when the situation involves investments in time and/or money intuitive approximation tends to produce inaccurate results. For example, many of us under estimate the time needed to complete tasks. We often tend to underestimate the amount of money that a project would cost. Many of us underestimate the cost of daily living, and accumulate large credit card debt. If we can estimate the approximate average amount of our estimation error we can correct our intuitive approximations. Generally, we probably make errors that are at least 25% lower than the correct quantity of time or money. Thus, increasing your intuitive approximations in such circumstances by approximately 25% might increase your accuracy. However, in many situations of this nature, especially when large sums of money are involved, the precise evaluation would be a superior method.

Precise evaluation can be performed very effectively and quickly with a hand-held calculator, or with the computer and the many available software packages designed for the purpose. I have found from my studies and experience that MathCAD is one of the best software packages in this category. (There are probably other software packages that are equally as good, but my experience is with MathCAD.) It is possible to perform highly complex calculations involving mathematical expressions that are many pages in length, involving advanced calculus, trigonometry, and algebra in a few seconds, with MathCAD. Of course, it can take hours to create mathematical expressions that are many pages in length, but if the calculation was carried out by pencil and paper it may require days, weeks or months to obtain a final answer. With a hand-held calculator, calculations of this nature can be done in a matter of hours, but with MathCAD it can be done in a matter of seconds. Of course, there are very few calculations that we encounter that present this level of complexity, but even with the conventional mathematical challenges presented in science, engineering, and business, MathCAD can save a tremendous amount of time and effort.

With MathCAD, (and probably also with similar software packages) it is possible to create reusable mathematical templates that are programmed to carry out specific types of calculations, by just providing the relevant numbers to be calculated. Templates of this nature can be created with simple instructions, so that individuals that do not have advanced training in mathematics can perform the calculations, by just adding the required numbers.

The use of spreadsheets is very common in many types of business calculations. However, they generally do not offer the power and flexibility that is attainable with a mathematics software package, such as MathCAD, but spreadsheets provide their own unique functionality. There are many different types of spreadsheet templates available in Microsoft Excel. OpenOfice.com also contains high-quality spreadsheets software. If you have Microsoft Excel, you should carefully examined and experiment with some of the different template spreadsheets available. You can examine the templates in Microsoft Excel by clicking on file, and then click on new. These templates can be modified for your special needs, and saved with the different filename, in the form of either a template format, for future use, or as a spreadsheet document.

Microsoft Office including Microsoft Excel provides a number of useful graphic formats where you can represent your data in the form of a graph. The calculations needed to represent your data graphically are carried out automatically by the software. That is to say the software configures the graph according to the numbers you provide. Below there is an embedded Microsoft Excel graphic chart, which is followed by a Microsoft Office chart. To activate these charts click on them, and then you can add your own numbers and data. After you add your own data, the charts will automatically change to conform to the data you provided.

One of the simplest computing devices is the Windows calculator, which was already briefly discussed. This calculator has two primary settings, one for simple arithmetic and the other for advanced calculations as well as arithmetic. This is very handy, because it is always available when you are working with the Windows operating system. If you are not thoroughly familiar with this calculator, you should practice with it. It is extremely simple to use. To examine the Windows calculator click here Calculator. The Windows calculator can also calculate in hexadecimal and binary. It also provides the functionality needed to convert conventional decimal calculations into binary or hexadecimal, and vice versa. It of course also contains the basic trigonometric functions (sin, cos, and tan).

If you want a software calculator that is much more powerful than the Windows calculator, you should try GraphCalc, which provides most of the functionality found in advanced software packages. This calculator has a number of screens, one of which produces a large graphic representation of equations in two or three dimensions. One of the best features of GraphCalc is it is free, and it can be obtained by downloading it from the Internet, by clicking on this link: http://www.graphcalc.com/download.shtml The only drawback of this calculator is the authors of the software do not recommend it for critical calculations, where an error can lead to destruction of life or property. However, there is no evidence that this software ever produces errors, but it should not be used as a singular source of calculations for critical engineering problems.

Actually, no software or handheld calculator should ever be used as a sole source of critical calculations. When errors in calculations can lead to loss of life, property or money, it is always advisable to perform the same calculations on several different computers with different software packages. The computers should have different processes as well as different software. The calculation should also be carried out by different individuals.

A very useful way of avoiding both computer and human errors in mathematical calculations is to perform the same calculations using two or more methods. For example, if you were going to add a set of numbers together, such as 2+4+20 you can use all of the following methods:

· Perform the addition in different sequences, such as 2+4+20=26 or 4+20+2=26 or 20+2+4=26

· Perform the addition with a different set of equivalent number with the same total value (2+4=6 20=10+10) 6+10+10=26

· Perform the addition in binary and than convert it to the decimal format: 2= in binary 10, 4= in binary 100, 20= in binary 10100 binary[10+100+10100=11010] decimal format= 26

· Perform the addition in hexadecimal and than convert it to the decimal format: 2= hexadecimal 2 4= hexadecimal 4

20= hexadecimal 14 hexadecimal [2+4+14]=1A

1A in decimal format =26

This method at a more sophisticated level, can involve creating complex sets of equations that should provide identical answers if there are no errors. With complex mathematics, the errors that are most likely to arise are human errors in mathematical reasoning, or errors in data entry. The method described above can usually indicate errors of this nature immediately.

There are of course commonsense or basic ways of checking for errors that are also quite useful. This involves reversing the mathematical procedure that was carried out, which should result in the numbers you started with before performing the calculation. For example, if you multiply 10 times 6 and you obtain 60, to check your answer, reverse the process and divide your answer, 60 by 10, which should equal 6 if the calculation was correct. Alternatively, you can divide by 6, which should equal (60/10) which should equal 10, if the calculations were correct. The same idea obviously applies to division, subtraction, and a number of other mathematical operations.

In algebra, most of us learned the simple idea of substituting back into the equation, to see if our answer maintains the equality expressed by the equation. Another technique is simply to divide the right side of your equation by the left side of the equation, (with your calculated values substituted into the equation) which should equal 1, if there are no errors. You can also subtract the left side of the equation from the right side (with your calculated values substituted into the equation), which should equal zero if there are no errors in your calculations. When using sophisticated mathematics software such as MathCAD, you can do this automatically, by setting the calculated value of the unknown (such as X:=10 ) For example, if you were trying to solve the equation 4X+X= -5X+100, you can simply write the expression or (4X+X) - (-5X+100) =

If you calculations are correct, automatically the first expression will result in a calculation of 1 and the second expression will of course result in the calculation of 0.

All of the above is primarily focused on the quantitative aspects of mathematics. The logic involved with problems and goals involves more than simple quantitative aspects. Logical assessments are very important for problem solving, and it may include the concept of quantity, but other relationships as well. This includes the way various components must be arranged to solve a problem. Often, a series of components must be arranged in physical space, in certain precise ways to solve a problem. In addition, many problems require the arrangement or sequencing of components at specific points in time. Some examples will clarify these ideas. The simplest example, is seen in electrical design problems, where it is necessary to precisely connect each component in specific sections of the circuit, with the precise electrical connections needed to achieve the desired goal. If you problem involves meal preparation, you must purchase the needed ingredients before hand, and they must be mixed together in certain precise ways. The must be cooked for specific time intervals, at specific temperatures. The time components in this regard can be critical. All the ingredients must be purchased first, and excessive or inadequate cooking time will ruin the food. The cooking must be completed before your guests arrive for dinner. Of course, in the case of industrial projects, the logic is far more complicated than the above examples. However, the point is that all problems and goal attainment efforts involve logic.

In the case of adverse problems it is often very helpful, and sometimes absolutely necessary, to determine the logical relationships that are causing the problem. If you can figure out the logical relationships and dynamics involved with your problem, you have a much better chance of solving it. The same idea applies to goals. If you can figure out the logical relationships and dynamics needed to obtain your goal, you have a much better chance of success. Of course, it is not always possible to figure out all of the logical relationships and dynamics with complex problems. However, if you can partly achieve the above, you still have a better chance then you would otherwise of obtaining your solution or goal.

Often, with simple personal and managerial problems and goals, you can figure out all the needed logic in your mind. However, with more complex problems logical relationships can be more precisely worked out, with the use of written language, diagrams, flowcharts, and computerized simulation models. With some problems and goals, a few sketches on a piece of paper can sometimes be very helpful. You can represent cause and effect sequences in terms of simple sketches. This can also be done in written language. When the sketching and writing is done on a computer with word processing software and/or with CAD software, you have a very powerful problem solving method.

Generally, with adverse problems, ideally, you should start your diagram or written text, with the cause and effect sequences. What caused the problem? What are the contributing factors? How do these factors interact, etc. When you're dealing with the goal related problem, you want to determine the optimal way of reaching the goal. Of course, all of this is not always easy. With difficult problems and goals there are usually many unknowns. There can be a considerable amount of randomness and unpredictability, when trying to solve a difficult problem or obtain a challenging goal. However, there are almost always some logical relationships that can be deciphered, by writing and sketching the various relationships. This works especially well when it is coupled with careful study, evaluation and experimentation.

Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.com are both excellent problem solving devices, in terms of the writing and sketching discussed above. They are far more than just excellent word processors. You can create detailed two-dimensional and three-dimensional sketches and detailed color drawings with both of these software packages. An example of a drawing, I created with Microsoft office is presented below. Note, to view this drawing, your word processor should be set at Print Layout. If it is not set in this way, the drawing might not be visible. To set the word processor to print view, click on View, and a menu will open. Then scroll down to Print Layout and click on it.

The above is an example of the three-dimensional drawing functionality available in Microsoft Word. OpenOffice.com has a similar functionality.

Step-13 Theories and Conceptual Models

The thirteenth step of the MAPS methodology involves theories and conceptual models. Theories and conceptual models provide a representation of structure, dynamics, and behavior of an entity. The way I am using the terminology, a conceptual model is a general concept that includes all theories, maps, and any other representation of an entity. For example, animals, especially birds, develop a conceptual model of the environment, which allows them to navigate long distances. This type of conceptual model is also seen in human beings, including children, who develop knowledge of their neighborhood, which allows them to maneuver without getting lost. We develop conceptual models of people we know, which allow us to more or less predict their responses and behaviors. Developing better conceptual models of the people we know, our problems, and obstacles that interfere with our goals, can greatly improve our problem solving ability. Keeping this idea in mind, by itself will probably improve your ability to avoid adverse problems, and solve the challenges that you are faced with. That is if you become conscious of this process, and make a deliberate effort to form accurate conceptual models, you will have a very useful strategy. This raises the question, how do you develop accurate conceptual models. The answer is always test out your conceptual models every time you use them, and take note when they failed to provide accurate predictions, so that you can make improvements in your images, ideas and believes. For example, when you're dealing with an individual, tried to predict behavior and responses in advance, but do not let you're predictions govern the reality. The idea is to take note of the actual responses, so you can make corrections in your conceptual model. Another very important way of producing good conceptual models is to observe study and evaluate the entity that you are trying to build a conceptual model of. The more study, time, effort and trial and error that goes into the creation of a conceptual model, the better it will be.

When dealing with an adverse problem or challenging goal it is very useful to try to develop one or more conceptual models that relate to the difficulties and challenges that you are dealing with. In general, the more models you develop, the better. When this is done, generally most of the models will be partly or totally incorrect, but this strategy will often result in at least one correct model.

From the perspective of problem solving and goal attainment, a correct conceptual model is a model that helps obtain a solution or goal. Obviously, the more utility the model provides in this regard the better. It should be noted here that the concept of a good conceptual model in science is somewhat different than the above, but this is only relevant if your problem relates to scientific research and study. That is if you are trying to carry out experiments for scientific purposes, or if you are trying to create scientific theories, you must create models that predict results consistently. The results of a scientific model must be reproducible by other individuals. However, if you are only interested in solving one specific problem, or obtaining one specific goal, it does not matter if your model only works for you, and nobody else. This is especially the case with personal problems. I am using the word theory for a conceptual model that represents specific principles, especially in relation to predicting dynamics, responses, interactions, behaviors, and cause and effect sequences. This type of conceptual model is more complex, and often involves complex principles including mathematical concepts. It is of course far more difficult to create a useful theory, then a simple conceptual model that is based on a set of experiences.

A general principle is any time you apply a theory, or a simpler conceptual model to a problem, you should always check the results. You should be prepared to make modifications in the model, your methods, and strategies, based on the trial and error process. This even applies to scientific theories that were experimentally proven many times over. The reason that it is necessary to check out already proven ideas is simply each time you apply them; you are applying them to new situations. It is usually impossible to know all the factors in the new situation. For example, if you apply Newton’s law of gravity, to predict when and where a space satellite will fall from orbit, there is a high probability that you're predictions will fail, because there are many unknowns involved. This includes precise wind conditions that the satellite will encounter when it enters the earth's atmosphere. In addition, there are usually a large number of unpredictable or unknown factors that can affect the results predicted by theoretical models.

Subtopic: Step-14 Searching for the Components Needed to Obtain a Solution or Goal

The fourteenth step in the MAPS methodology is searching for the components needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal. This is a searching and selection process. This is a very fundamental step carried out by both humans and animals. Animals, especially mammals, solve the problems they face in life by conducting searches, such as for: food, water, mates, and shelter from adverse weather conditions, and hiding places from their enemies. Human beings of course, are far more sophisticated in this regard, and they may be searching for a large number of diverse components needed to solve a problem.

The exact components that you have to search for depend on your problem or goal, but it can include one or more of the following:

· Information, instructions, technical support, ideas, opinions, raw data

· Websites, articles, books, sound or video recordings with instructional information, scientific papers, government reports, courses, instruction given over the Internet

· Experts, physicians, surgeons, psychologists, sociologists, lawyers, engineers, architects, chemists, physicists, mathematicians, computer programmers, instructors, knowledgeable friends and relatives

· Technicians, computer repair personnel, electricians, carpenters, construction workers, manual laborers, new employees, friends and relatives with special skills

· Organizations, clinics, hospitals, schools, colleges, universities, technical schools, clubs,

· Professionally run groups dealing with your problem or goal, special-interest groups, self-help groups, social groups

New acquaintances, new friends, dates, potential mates

· Various types of technology, computers, software, any type of electronic equipment, communications equipment, machinery, tools

· Consumable goods, building materials, wood, cement, clay, plastic, chemicals, decorating materials, paint, stationery, pencils, pens, ink cartridges

· Workspace, real estate, office space, apartments for rent, an apartment sublet, condominiums, homes for sale, a mobile home, a campsite to setup a tent.

· Personal items, clothing, household utensils, furniture, food, water

· Jobs, employers, employment agencies, business partners,

· Funding, loans, special business loans, student loans, government grants, private grants, free money programs for college study, banks, credit card companies

· General sources to obtain the components needed to solve a problem, libraries, browsers, search engines, telephone directories, advertisements, employment agencies, corporate recruiting firms

Of course, there are many thousands of other components that could be put on this list, but the general concept should be clear from the items that were mentioned.

The searching and selection process can be conducted a number of ways. One strategy is to conduct an extensive search for more components then you need. Then the best components are selected from the large number of components that were obtained in the search. It is easy to do this with information, so I will use it as the first example. You can start your information search and obtain thousands of web sites. The next step would be to select out a few of the best. This can involve conducting searches within searches. It can also involve quick inspection of many websites, and selecting a a few of the best. The best websites could then be carefully read and studied. Another example is with experts, such as physicians. If you are looking for a doctor with a specific medical specialty, you can conduct a search for all the doctors in your locality that specialize in the field of medicine that you are interested in. Then you can call each one, and obtain basic information. Then you can select two or three of the ones you believe to be the best. Then make appointments, and decide which of the three you want to use as your physician.

Of course, conducting very large-scale searches and selecting a few of the best can be time-consuming. It is a lot quicker to conduct one search until you find one possibility, and then stop the search. When this is done, the next step would be to evaluate the possibility to see if it meets your minimum requirements. If it does the search is completed. If it does not meet your minimum standards, then the search is resumed until another possibility is obtained. The first method is likely to result in better quality, and the second method is likely to produce quicker results. However, there are many situations where the best is not much different than the average, for all practical purposes. For example, if you wanted to purchase wood to build a bookcase, it would not make sense to make a list of all the lumberyards in your locality, and compare the quality and prices of their wood. However, if you were planning to open a furniture factory, obtaining the best quality would at the lowest possible price would be extremely important. In this case, conducting a search for all the lumberyards in your locality would make sense. This would allow you to select the lumberyards that would give you the best deal. Even a 5 or 10% saving, could mean the difference between your furniture factory going into bankruptcy or making a profit. With the first example, of one bookcase, 5 or 10% saving on wood would not be significant, but with a furniture factory it is very significant.

Another strategy is to search for a number of different types of components all of which may or may not help solve one specific aspect of your problem. For example, if you have a medical problem, you can conduct a search for different types of medical providers, and evaluate each one to determine the best choice. This could involve searching for a physician, a nurse practitioner, a chiropractor, acupuncturist, a physician specializing in alternative medicine, etc. This can include making appointments with each one of the medical providers, and evaluating their utility for your problem.

There are a number of ways of finding the various components needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal. This includes the telephone directories, advertisements, and the phone, asking people you know for assistance, the use of hard copy, searching the environment for resources, and best by far searching the Internet. However, often it is best to use all of the above, and sometimes it is absolutely necessary to do so. These strategies are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Telephone directories, advertisements, and the phone, are commonsense strategies that can sometimes be very effective. However, you can increase the efficiency of this method, by purchasing a speakerphone, which is useful if you are put on hold for excessively long periods of time. I found that the speaker and microphone in most speakerphones are inadequate for talking, but they also have conventional telephone receivers. Thus when you are not on hold, you can switch to the conventional telephone settings, and use a speakerphone like a conventional phone. Generally, the speakerphone can save a considerable amount of time with certain types of phone calls. When you are waiting on hold you can complete other tasks. In addition, it is very uncomfortable to hold a receiver for prolonged periods of time, while waiting for someone to answer your call, and the speakerphone solves this problem. Another strategy is to use a wireless phone, and connect a headset with the microphone to it. This is especially useful if you are trying to obtain technical support of some type on the telephone, such as for a computer problem. Thus, your hands will be free to carry out the instructions provided by technical support personnel.

Asking people you know for assistance such as friends, relatives and neighbors is also commonsense strategy. This strategy might be very dysfunctional, if you are asking for financial assistance or what to borrow money. Banks and credit card companies are prepared to take the risks of lending money, but not friends and family. Generally speaking, it is better not to ask for any type of assistance that results in hostile responses or conflict. The best strategy is to ask for assistance that the people you know enjoy giving, or do not mind providing. People often like to give advice, and talk about their own experiences, which can be helpful to you in some cases. However, this may obligate you to reveal personal information, which may or may not be problematic. In general, asking people we know for any type of assistance can necessitate revealing information about our problem or goal, which can cause adverse responses in some cases. The general principle is to ask for assistance that people will probably not mind giving or enjoy giving, and to monitor the responses, and make corrections in the situation based on the trial and error process.

Use of hard copy, is a commonsense strategy that was used for hundreds of years, but in the computer age, many people overlook it. Conventional books and magazine articles often provide a convenient source of information. Often to successfully solve a problem you have to engage in extensive study, and one or two books on this subject can provide all the information you need in many cases. When you have a problem or challenging goal, browsing the bookstores, or library shelves, can be ineffective type of creative thinking. Very often you can find a number of unique perspectives and possible solutions from many different authors on all types of problems and goals.

Searching the environment for resources, is probably the oldest strategy of finding components needed to solve a problem. This technique is commonly used by both animals and people. Searching the environment for resources means that you are looking for what you need, in your home, workplace, in the city streets, in the wilderness, or anywhere else. Most manufactured products initially involve this type of searching, such as searching for naturally occurring minerals deposits, ore, oil, timber, etc. This strategy is sometimes even useful for personal problems. That is by walking through the city streets, you can do window shopping, check out many products in various department stores, and search for various organizations, physicians, etc. If you are a creative individual with handicraft and technical skills, searching the city streets for discarded items can sometimes be a useful problem solving strategy. This can involve searching for old furniture, discarded wood, old computers and other electronics, and either repairing the items, or using the parts to build new items.

Searching the Internet is a strategy that is unique to our modern computer age. The use of the computer and the Internet is the most effective strategy, especially when you are dealing with difficult problems. Many people do not understand this strategy, because they believe that you can only find advertising or consumer based information on the Internet. However, if you know how to effectively conduct Internet searches you can obtain all the components needed to solve almost any problem, through the Internet. This includes information, formal study courses in the form of text, sound recordings or video, books, small appliances, furniture, household equipment, laboratory equipment, large-scale industrial equipment, experts of all kinds, physicians, lawyers, psychologists, engineers, carpenters, electricians, funding sources, etc.

Of course, once you find what you are looking for on the Internet, you must proceed to obtain the components. For information, this is straightforward, and usually does not involve any money, with a few exceptions. There is often a charge for scientific and journal articles. Obtaining software on the Internet usually involves downloading it for free. Sometimes this involves a free trial period, where the software stops working after a certain number of days, unless you pay for it. As previously indicated, there are many types of software that are given away for free on the Internet. When there is a charge for software, or anything, it is usually paid for by typing in your credit card or debit card number. Books and equipment are usually sent through the mail, or by UPS, or FedEx. Larger items such as furniture are delivered in the conventional way, by truck. Of course, if your problem solving effort involves experts, physicians, lawyers, engineers, etc, you have to make an appointment, which usually is done in the conventional way, by telephone. However, e-mail can sometimes be used as an alternative.

Often software can solve problems in ways that we did not consider. It is usually worthwhile to see if there is any software that can help you solve your problem or make it easier for you to obtain your goal. The primary idea here is to do an Internet search for software even if it does not appear to make sense to you. You will often be surprised, and when you do not find any software to deal with your problem, you did not lose anything.

Searching for software that relates to your problem can be done by doing a search with the words Software for P. The letter P stands for the type of software you are looking for. For example, P can stand for cooking, thus the search term would be Software for cooking. Thus, P can stand for any of the following: physical exercise, running, jogging, weight reduction, money management, time management, timing, personnel management, file management, writing, mathematics, chemistry, physics, photography, engineers, scientists, psychologists, sociologists, students, any course of study, an illness, any type of roles, such as lawyer, physician, instructor, photographer, mother, father, etc. Searching for software in this way is essentially a type of creative thinking. This type of creative strategy suggests that you cannot be sure of the usefulness of the results you will obtain, until you experiment and conduct your searches.

When using the computer and Internet start your search for general information about your problem. This can be done by creating a list of questions, and/or search terms. Generally, the longer the list you create the better. Do not worry about the quality of your questions because nobody will see them, and they are going to be used as search terms. Ideally, this should be done by typing lists of questions and phrases directly into the problem solving template. When you are ready to use the questions and phrases, you can cut and paste them directly into your search engine. When you do this, you are not necessarily going to obtain a direct answer to your questions, but you will usually obtain many relevant websites that have the information and the resources you need to solve your problems or obtain your goal.

When you obtain the information from Internet searches select out the relevant material, and study it. If you have many web pages to read, you should print some of the material, so you can read it when you are not by the computer. In addition, when dealing with large amounts of information on the Internet, the text-to-speech software, discussed earlier in this book, is very helpful. It relieves the strain of reading many web pages on a computer screen, and if you combine both conventional reading and text-to-speech, the learning process is facilitated greatly. It is very easy to review 20 pages of text several times by listening.

When you find useful websites, it is a good idea to cut and paste the web addresses from the address bar of your browser, directly into your problem solving template, in case you have to return to the web sites. In addition, you can make these web addresses active Internet links by placing the cruiser at the very end of the web address, and pressing ENTER.

Another very useful strategy when dealing with websites is to copy the Web pages that have the information you need, and paste them directly into your problem solving template. When this is done with the conventional cut and paste mechanism, the links on the copied web pages often, but not always, respond in the same way as they did in the original website. For example, if you copy a page that dealt with contact information into your word processor document, and on top of the page there is a tad that says HOME, clicking on it, with the mouse, will bring you to the home page of the website.

There is a disadvantage in copying web pages into your problem solving template using the conventional cut and paste mechanism. Specifically, the copied web pages can take up a lot of computer memory, which may or may not be relevant for you. If you have a large amount of memory, and you do not have too many programs opened simultaneously, it should not be a problem. However, if you have a small amount of available memory, copying web pages as described above might cause a problem with your computer. If this is the case, you can copy web pages without any of the graphics, or Web links, by copying in the conventional way, but before you past it into your document, you click on the Edit button in your word processor, and a menu will open. Scroll down to the words paste special, and then click with the mouse, and another menu will open. On this menu you will see the words Unformatted Unicode Text, click on it, and then click OK. Your document will be pasted into your word processor, but it will look like conventional text. There will be no active Web links or photographs of any kind. This would not require any more memory than text that you type yourself.

Once you have completed some of the research, collected web pages you need, and did adequate study of the information you gathered, you are ready to search for the other components you need to obtain your objective. This can be books, courses, equipment, experts, organizations, funding, etc. When you are searching for components of this nature, it is often necessary to restrict the location of your search to the city you live in. There are many ways that this can be achieved, but it usually involves some trial and error, and persistence. The simplest way that sometimes works, is to place your city or state in the address bar of your search engine. For example, if you need an electrician, use the search term: electrician New York, NY. Another technique which is often much more effective, is to use search engines that are designed to search by locality. Another, alternative is to search for local business and phone directories that are on the Internet. The following are Internet links of search engines and telephone directories that do searches by locality.

Google local http://www.google.com/lochp?hl=en&tab=wl&q

Yahoo! local http://local.yahoo.com

AOL local http://localsearch.aol.com

Ask Jeeves local http://local.ask.com/local

MSN local http://search.msn.com/local/results.aspx?q=&near=Near+Me

Yellow.com http://www.yellow.com

Superpages.com http://www.superpages.com

Yellowpages.com http://www.yellowpages.com/sp/?_requestid=881938

Switchboard http://www.switchboard.com

Infospace http://www.infospace.com

Subtopic: Step-15 Funding

The fifteenth step of the MAPS methodology involves funding. Funding is discussed in detail in another section of this book, but here it is discussed in terms of the MAPS methodology. Of course, there are many problems and goals where funding is not a significant issue. This can involve situations where the problem solving effort requires little or no money, or where costs can easily be covered by personal funds. However, most major problems and goals require large sums of money. This is obvious, when you consider typical personal problems and goals, such as medical difficulties, educational goals involving college, and/or graduate school, purchasing an automobile or a home. Thus, funding can be one of the most important components in the problem solving and goal attainment process.

The most important idea to keep in mind is that if you do not have the money for many types of problems and goals, you can often obtain special funding or loans to obtain your objective. There is often funding available from a number of sources for educational goals. Many localities provide free night school, and in the United States and many other countries there are various types of scholarship grants and student loans available. For medical problems, there is usually assistance available from insurance, government assistance, and clinics that can provide free or low cost service to some individuals. For industrial problems, and scientific research there is usually a large number of potential funding sources. Obtaining such funding of course depends on your credentials.

Meeting the personal requirements to obtain a specific type of funding can sometimes be quite challenging, and it can require much paperwork. Often, explaining goals in detail, especially in writing, can be helpful in this regard. In general, being persistent, flexible enough to meet requirements, and patient, with a willingness to obtain require documents and credentials can be the determining factor on whether or not you will obtain funding.

A very important concept is to design or redesign your problem or goal in a legitimate way that would warrant funding. The idea is simply to examine the available sources of funding, and modify your plans and objectives to meet their criteria. For example, if your goal is related to a hobby, converting it into a formal course of technical and/or college studies, aimed at employment, will qualify you for various types of scholarships and student loans. This strategy offers additional benefits after training, because instead of the hobby costing money, it will become a source of income if you find related employment. This strategy of course involves some sacrifices and modifications, because it generally requires studying some material that you may not be interested in. This strategy of course cannot be done with all hobbies. However, with a little creative thinking it can be done with a large number of hobbies, including the following examples: science, photography, writing, mathematics, computer technology, graphic art, cooking, and carpentry. In addition, there are some hobbies that can more or less directly be converted into employment. For example, if you enjoy collecting and watching the latest videos, obtaining part-time or full-time employment in a store selling videos might be an excellent way of funding the hobby.

Scientific research projects can often be legitimately designed or redesign to qualify for funding. Many types of research involving fundamental physics, chemistry and biology, can be modified so that it is focused on specific types of practical problems, such as one or more medical conditions, environmental problems, energy production, or the production of a useful product. The idea to keep in mind is any type of research that is focused on practical problems can interest potential employers, investors, as well as public and private funding agencies.

The idea of all of the above, is to be creative, and think of many possibilities. This applies to your search for funding, as well as the design and presentation of your project in relation to funding.

One of the best ways to start your search for funding is to use the Internet. Using search terms such as funding for X, where X stands for the type of funding. The, X can be college, technical school, cancer research, fundamental physics, biochemistry, small-business, etc..

Searching for books, pamphlets, and web sites that have information on funding that relates to your problem or goal is often a very effective strategy. This can involve searching through the Internet, bookstores, or the library. The best place to start is with an Internet search. This can involve search terms such as pamphlets on X funding, books on funding for X, web sites for X funding.

Asking experienced people for information is another good way of finding sources of funding. For example, if your goal is related to a college education, asking college financial aid advisers, and college students will most likely provide the information you need. For medical problems, asking medical personnel and other patients might lead to the information you need. The general idea is to ask both officials and recipients about the grants you are seeking.

The preliminary information you obtain, whether it is from the Internet, officials, or recipients, must be followed up with phone calls, correspondence, and personal visits to funding sources. All of this often takes a considerable amount of effort, but you are likely to obtain a considerable sum of money for your problem or goal.

Subtopic: Step-16 The Writing Process

The eighteenth step of the MAPS methodology is the writing process. This also is discussed in detail in many sections of this book. I will briefly outline some of the ways the writing process can be used in problem solving in this subtopic. You can find the details throughout the book.

Writing can help with all of the following:

· It can help you organize your thoughts in relation to your problem or goal. It can also help you gain insight, and stimulate your creative thinking, which can lead to unforeseen solutions.

· It can help you create a goal related plan.

· It can help you communicate with experts and technicians.

· Writing can be used to analyze and record your failures and related causative factors, which can reduce the chances of repeated failures of the same type.

· Writing can be used to analyze and records your successes, and the contributing factors and dynamics that lead to success. This will increase the chances of repeated success if you can apply the same strategy to other situations.

Answering questions in MAPS template in writing will help you do all of the above. The more you write the better. Keep in mind that you are primarily writing to organize your thoughts, analyzer problem, work out plans, and to stimulate your creative thinking. You do not have to be concerned about grammar, spelling, or how other people will respond to your ideas, be because you are writing for yourself. If you decide to use any of this material for other purposes, such as to communicate with experts, you can always revise it, into a form that is suitable for communication purposes.

Subtopic: Step-17 Organizing and Managing Personnel, Equipment and Materials

The seventeenth step of the MAPS methodology involves organizing and managing. Organizing and managing the components needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal is a primary process that is obvious in business problems. However this step is very often equally relevant for some personal problems and goals, but for simpler problems it can often be ignored. The components that have to be managed and organized include people, equipment, tools, workspace, consumable materials, money, time, and any other components that are needed to help solve a problem or obtain a goal. Of course, you must first follow the previous steps, especially searching and then obtaining the components needed for the problem solving process. Once this is done the organizing and managing process must be carried out successfully to obtain the goal. However, the searching, and selection process also must be organized and managed to produce optimal results, especially with complex problems.

Maintaining order is quite important when dealing with a large number of components. This essentially involves placing the various components needed to solve the problem in places where they can be stored safely and retrieved quickly. For computer data, everything can be placed on the MAPS template or hyperlinked to it. Equipment should be placed where it will be needed, and where the items can be obtained without excessive searching for misplaced items. Generally, order must be maintained with a periodic or continuous effort, involving placing items in proper locations, and removal of debris.

Keeping a computer system in order requires a similar effort. It is necessary to periodically run antivirus software, and Spyware removal programs. With the Windows operating system, there is a number of maintenance procedures and software that should be done periodically, including disk defragmentation, and disk cleanup. To access the software to perform the various maintenance functions, in Windows XP, click on Start, All Programs, Accessories, and then System Tools. You can also try the following hyperlink, or icon:

System Tools.

It is possible to electronically schedule many of these maintenance procedures, including the antivirus software scans, using the Windows tasks scheduling software. To access the window scheduling device click here: Icons\System Tools\Scheduled Tasks.lnk or try the following icon:

If the hyperlinks do not function on your computer, you can access the system tools and scheduling device, by clicking on start, All Programs, Accessories, and then Systems Tools.

The managing process involves communicating in written and spoken language to each individual that is working on the project. This should be coupled with feedback that confirms either successful performance, or less than optimal performance. This should of course include efforts to improve less than optimal performance. However, with complex problem solving, inadequate performance can often be the result of a very difficult problem, but this does not imply that improvement is not possible. All of this actually applies to business and personal problems. For example, a patient might communicate with his doctors about a medical difficulty, and provide feedback to them about the medical procedures they prescribed. When this is done well, the feedback will significantly improve the medical treatment.

Time is another important component that must be managed successfully to solve complex problems. When you are the primary individual working on the problem, you only have to manage your own time. This can involve setting priorities, and focusing most of your time and effort on the most important activities. When you are managing the time of other individuals, such as with business problems you have a more difficult time management challenge. This can involve careful supervision and planning of various tasks, which are allocated to individuals that can efficiently complete the tasks.

A general principle of time management that I found quite useful is to eliminate or reduce any time consuming tasks that are not essential. For example, an unnecessary shopping trip, or an appointment that is not essential, can waste at least one to three hours, if not longer. In this regard, the question to ask, yourself are as follows: Is this task necessary? What will happen if I eliminate this task? Can allocate this task to someone else? I have also found that it is possible to do many tasks in faster ad more efficient ways. This requires some trial and error, and experimenting. Asking yourself the following questions can stimulate your creative thinking in this regard: Can this task be done more efficiently, with less time and effort? Is there any way of eliminating time-consuming steps in this process? Is there any equipment available that would speed this process up?

Good quality organizing and managing of the components involves obtaining individuals and/or organizations that have experience in successfully performing the needed tasks. Of course, this is not always possible, especially when dealing with unique scientific and engineering projects that involve design of new types of apparatus. However, it is usually quite feasible to obtain individuals and organizations that at least have knowledge and experience that is approximately related to the problem you are working on. In the case of personal problems, it is also not always feasible to obtain individuals and organizations that have the exact knowledge and experience needed to deal with an unusual problem or goal. However, the objective should be to obtain assistance that is as close as possible to the ideal.

In most cases, whether you are dealing with a business or personal problem, a major consideration is cost. That is the personnel, organizations, equipment, and materials must be obtained at a price that is cost-effective, in relation to the goal. Generally, we want the highest possible quality at the lowest possible price. However, lower prices often mean lower quality, but not always. Searching for the lowest possible price can also be time-consuming, and at a certain point can become counterproductive. Generally, obtaining the most cost-effective personnel, services, equipment and materials is based on the expertise of the manager or problem solver. Specifically, if you have acquired the needed technical knowledge, you can usually figure out ways of getting a problem solved for less money. For example, in the case of engineering and scientific projects using standardized parts can cut costs tremendously, but to understand precisely when and where this is feasible requires technical knowledge. Generally, it is often advisable to design or redesign projects so they can be constructed with standard parts, but to manage such procedures requires technical knowledge. The same general concept applies to the various procedures and skills needed for problem solving efforts in general. For example, if you can design or redesign a project so that it involves standard skills it will be less expensive, then training people to perform unique skills, but once again to manage such an effort requires technical knowledge. All of this can sometimes apply to personal problems. For example, if you have an unusual type of furniture built to order, it will probably cost more than conventional furniture. If you add a nonstandard feature to architectural plans for a new home, it will probably cost you far more money on construction costs, then if you added a standard feature.

In general, the more information you obtain about your problem, and the more searching you do in terms of assistance, equipment, and materials, the better chances you have obtaining your goal. The optimum way of going about achieving this is to carry out a large-scale search and obtain many possibilities, and select the best individuals, organizations, equipment and materials in relation to your goal. However, you must understand that the word best is a relative concept in this regard. For example, the best engineer is an individual that has the experience in successfully performing the tasks that relate to your problem. The same applies to organizations that are providing services or equipment for your problem or goal. The best equipment would be machinery and tools that can perform the specific tasks that relate to your problem at an optimum level. For example, if you are purchasing computers for simple word processing, the optimum equipment would be relatively low-priced computers. That is more powerful computers would not improve efficiency, and it would not produce better quality documents. Just the opposite would apply, if you purchasing computers for creating diagrams with CAD software. The same idea of course applies to material. That is the best material is a relative concept, and sometimes a detailed understanding of requirements can suggest lower priced alternatives, that are superior for the purpose.

The important idea to understand is whether you are dealing with a large-scale industrial project, a medium-size or small business problem, or personal problem, the quality of the organizing and managing will often determine success or failure. In this regard, quality management often requires a considerable amount of technical knowledge, which manages, and individuals with personal problems, often do not have. Studying the relevant technical material that relates to each project can be time-consuming, but it can lead to better results.

Very Important Subtopic: Step-18 Creating a Goal Related Plan

The eighteenth step of the MAPS methodology is creating a plan to solve your problem, or obtain your goal. One of the primary purposes of the MAPS template is to create one or more plans delineating steps, procedures, strategies, and methods to obtain a solution or goal. This plan ideally should consist of a description of the problem or goal, and a series of steps that lead to the solution or goal. The plan should ideally contain strategies and/or methods of obtaining each step. You should also have alternative steps in the plan, in case you meet with obstacles or failures for specific steps. The plan can also have a series of subgoals, and possibly time estimates of when each subgoal should be obtained. However, often it is not feasible to create an ideal plan, especially with difficult problems. When a complex problem solving effort is started often it can be difficult to precisely define a goal, because we do not have all the information needed to determine what a feasible goal will be. When you first create the plan many or even all of the steps can be tentative, because you may not have the information needed to delineate precise steps and procedures. This can necessitate periodically returning to this step (step-18) to improve the plan, and the steps, procedures, strategies, and methods it contains. This could also include improvements in the delineation of the problem, the solution or the goal. However, even when the plan appears to be good, it might be advisable to periodically make improvements in everything contained in the plan, based on the knowledge and experience you gained in the problem solving process.

The idea to keep in mind in this regard, is even working a relatively short period of time on a problem or goal usually results in great improvements in insight and related skills and abilities. The longer you work on the problem or goal the greater the improvements. This will usually give you the ability to develop a much better plan, with superior strategies and methods, with more realistic objectives.

For simpler problems and goals it is possible to create part of the plan in your mind, and sometimes it is even more efficient to create the entire plan in your mind. However, with more difficult problems it is usually necessary to write out a detailed plan. The plan may be required to obtain funding, to obtain the authorization needed to start the project, to communicate with other people working on the project, and to keep track of the various steps and procedures that must be carried out.

Some examples of goal related plans are an engineering plan, an architectural plan, a business plan, a personal plan that delineates the steps needed to obtain a goal or solve a problem, or any plan that contains the text or diagrams that relate to the attainment of a solution or goal.

The precise style that is required for the many different types of plans involves specialized information, which relates to the specific field that you are dealing with. For example, architectural plans for a skyscraper, must be created in a specific style, and must contain specialized information that relates to the field of architecture. This book deals with general principles. The specific information can be obtained from many sources that relate to specific fields. You can obtain detailed information about plans, by consulting experts and textbooks in the specific field that you are interested in, and/or by conducting Internet searches. Conducting an Internet search with the following search terms will provide some information in this regard.

· How to write a business plan

· Software to write a business plan

· Business consultants, writing business plan

· How to create architectural plans

· Software to create architectural plans

· Architectural firms

· Architects

· How to create electronic schematics

· Software for electrical engineers

· Software for electrical engineering students

· Software to create electronic schematic diagrams

· Electrical engineers

· Electrical engineering firms

· How to create engineering plans

· Software to create engineering plans

· Engineering firms

· Engineers

The following concept is an extremely important principle that will provide the steps needed to solve extremely difficult problems that you would probably consider beyond your capabilities. Specifically, it involves engaging the services of experts or organizations that specialize in specific fields, to help you create your plans. This applies to many types of plans, including engineering and architectural plans. In some cases it can also apply to business plans. This process can include your own creativity, and it can be summarized with the following seven steps.

· Step 1) Create your own tentative plan, which can be in the form of a written description, a sketch, CAD design, a scale model

· Step 2) Search for one or more experts or affirm that specializes in the relevant field that relates to your problem, and present your initial plan.

· Step 3) The expert(s) will tell you what is feasible in your plan and what is not feasible

· Step 4) You ask the expert(s) if there is any way that the unfeasible components in your plan can be modified so they will be feasible.

· Step 5) You and the expert(s) make the needed modifications in your initial plan so it is feasible.

· Step 6) The expert(s) create an official plan that is based on step 5.

· Step 7) Appropriate experts, technicians, and other individuals complete the actual construction of the project

For example, if your goal is to design and build your own concept of a one family house, you can make basic plans, which you can take to an architect, and proceed through the above steps. This would result in the architect creating official architectural plans based on your creative thinking and ideas, without any of the unfeasible ideas that you may have initially presented. The same idea could be done with any engineering project, ranging from a jet plane, to an automobile, to a computer. Of course, this method is usually extremely expensive, and it might be feasible for large corporations. However, it can sometimes be relatively inexpensive. I created a very unusual and large desk three feet by nine feet, with six huge draws, using this method. This involved presenting my plan to a cabinetmaker. The cabinetmaker had a number of detailed discussions with me, and we worked out the initial problems that were in my original design. One of the problems was the difficulty in transporting such a large piece of furniture, because it could not fit through doorways. This was solved by designing the desk in three primary sections, plus one large tabletop, to be assembled after delivery. He made a number of initial sketches, based on my plans. When all the problems were worked out he sketched the final plans. Then the desk was built by experienced carpenters that were employed by the firm he worked for. The price was less than $1500.

In general, there are many strategies that can be used to create a goal related plan, regardless of whether you are going to present it to experts for revision, or if you are going to create and implement the plan yourself. One of the simplest strategies is to create one good plan. An alternative strategy is to create a number of plans and select the best one. Another strategy is to create a number of plans, and then incorporate a few of the best plans into one hybrid or composite plan.

The more you write while creating your plans, the more solutions you are likely to obtain. Creating plans and searching for inadequacies and problems, and correcting the difficulties can result in a better plan. The idea here is to try to spot the difficulty before you implement the plan, which allows corrections, without any loss of time, effort and money.

Subtopic: Step-19 Estimating the Cost in: Money, Time, and Effort

The nineteenth step of the MAPS methodology deals with the question: How much time, money and effort will your problem solving effort require before you obtain your goal? In addition, in some cases how much time, money and effort will each subgoal cost? Is it worth risking, time, money, and effort to obtain this goal? If I fail to obtain the goal, will the investment be wasted, or will it provide other benefits independent of successfully obtaining the goal? How can I reduce the amount of money, time and effort to obtain my objective?

Almost all problem solving and goal attainment endeavors, involve an investment in time, money and effort. Very often, the investment turns out to be greater than we expected. The reason for this is it is usually difficult or impossible to foresee all the obstacles, and dynamics that relate to a goal attainment effort. This is especially the case if you are dealing with a complex problem, especially if there is no apparent solution. That is with challenging problems and goals it is difficult to foresee the need for all of the components, such as equipment, supplies and services required to obtain the final objective. It is difficult to predict all the needed steps and procedures needed to obtain the final objective. It is also difficult to predict the various failures and setbacks that are likely to periodically happen when dealing with complex problems and goals.

In addition, the world we live in is unpredictable, to varying degrees, which makes it very difficult to evaluate the relative degree of risks involved with our efforts. In fact, the unpredictability often makes it difficult to estimate the investment that will be required to obtain complex objectives. The relative degree of unpredictability is related to our overall circumstances, the problem we are working on, and are knowledge of the relevant components and dynamics that are involved with obtaining a solution. We can make more accurate estimates of the needed investment to obtain a solution by studying the relevant factors, and trying to control the overall situation that we are dealing with. However, the level of control is often limited, because most challenging problem solving efforts involve other people. Very often, the values, beliefs, and philosophy of other people determine when we succeed, fail, or inhibit the degree of our success. For example, if we are looking for employment, the needs, believes, and feelings of potential employers, will be a major determining factor of our success.

A general rule is the more we understand about the factors that we are dealing with, especially the people the more predictable our goal attainment efforts will be. The more we learn, the more we study, the more we experiment, the greater our ability will be to estimate the cost in time, money, and effort.

However, it is not likely that you will be able to accurately calculate the total investment needed to solve difficult problems, especially when there are a number of unknowns. One way of dealing with this, is to try to create a situation where the investment is definitely worth while, as a result of secondary rewards, independent of the primary goal. This idea is expressed in various forms throughout the book, because it is quite important. For example, if your goal attainment efforts, involve healthy activities, that are interesting, enjoyable, and are increasing your knowledge and skills, the time investment is probably worth while, even if you do not obtain your goal. The same may apply to the investment in money and effort.

In spite of the above ideas, it is often necessary, and advisable to try to estimate the total investment needed to obtain a goal. This can sometimes be an absolute requirement, to obtain funding from a government or private agency. With complex problems, when all the relevant factors are known, it is quite possible to calculate accurate assessments of total costs in time and money. This is often seen in some large-scale industrial projects. However, when you are dealing with experimental projects, business endeavors, and personal problems usually all of the relevant factors are not known, especially in terms of quantity.

When dealing with the unpredictable circumstances discussed above, the best strategy might be to make the most realistic estimate that you can, in terms of time and money, and increase this estimate by 25% to compensate for likelihood of underestimation. If you are dealing with a very uncertain situation, you should probably increase the estimate by more than the above, perhaps 50%. An evaluation of your past estimates can be helpful in determining how much you are likely to be underestimating.

One of the primary reasons for estimating costs, is to arrange for funding? Major problem solving efforts and related goals often involve large sums of money. Often, very desirable goals can be prohibitively expensive. Thus, with problem solving and goal attainment efforts, you are risking time, money, and effort.

It is a good idea to figure out ways of reducing the time, money and effort needed to obtain your objective. Exactly how this can be done depends on the particular problem or goal that you are working on. In general, developing a higher level of awareness for spotting waste and inefficiency can be helpful. The idea is to look for wasted efforts, wasted time, wasted materials, and inefficient methods, and make appropriate corrections. Looking for the best prices for the various components needed to solve a problem can also be helpful.

Subtopic: Step-20 Negative Goals and Risks

The twentieth step of the MAPS methodology involves assessing negative goals and risks. I am defining negative goals as adverse outcomes that you want to avoid, especially in relation to a problem solving effort. For example, you want to avoid accidents, conflict with others, excessive expenditures in time, money, and effort. In general, most goal attainment efforts increase certain risks. When you attempt to solve a problem, very often you are removing some component, or changing something, which can cause disequilibrium, resulting in one or more adverse consequences. Very often when we try to improve one aspect of our lives, we end up causing problems in another area of our lives. For example, moving from the city to suburbia, may provide an escape from many of the problems of the city. However, suburbia has its own set of problems that were not part of city living, such as the necessity to drive to work during rush hour, and the unavailability of local stores.

The idea of all of the above is to develop an awareness of what you do not want to happen, so you can take proper precautions to avoid it. This includes an awareness of any risks that may be associated with your problem solving effort. Once you are aware of possible adverse consequences, you can delineate them in written language. Then you can analyze and evaluate the situation that you are dealing with. This should include research and study when necessary. Then, all of the above can be used to create a plan to prevent the adverse consequences from happening. This plan can be created on the maps problem solving template.

Note this concept is discussed in more detail in a different section of this book.

Subtopic: Step-21 The Learning Process

The twenty-first step of the MAPS methodology is the learning process. This involves studying and practicing to obtain the knowledge and skills needed to obtain a goal or solve a problem. A basic idea that is implied here is: if you do not know how to solve a problem, you can very often learn how to solve it, by studying and practicing. In addition, many goals clearly require the learning process, such as educational and vocational goals. In science, and engineering many goals involve learning through experimentation, with the aim of developing new theories, methods, and products. Thus the learning process is one of the most important steps for complex problem solving.

The MAPS problem solving template can be used to store your notes and web links, which contain the information that you need to study. Once you have started a plan, you should be consciously and deliberately involved with the learning process. This includes reading, studying, learning how to operate equipment needed to solve your problem, practicing relevant skills, and developing the background information needed to obtain your objective. This step (Step-21) should be periodically updated as you proceed with the problem solving process. Specifically, this involves obtaining new material to study that relates to your problem or goal.

It is very important to understand that the words the learning process is general terminology. There are a number of different types of learning, and it is very important to understand this fact, because each type of learning serves a different function, at least from the perspective of problem solving that I am presenting in this book. Some examples and further description will clarify this idea.

The simplest type of learning takes place when we look up information in a specific field, such as medicine. If we do not have a medical or scientific background, this essentially involves memorizing or grasping a couple of phrases or ideas, without a detailed study of related concepts. I'm calling this isolated-concept-learning. We can also call this type of learning lookup-learning. The advantage to this type of learning is it takes very little time. The disadvantage of isolated concept learning is learning isolated ideas, usually does not provide the background information needed to evaluate the ideas, and to apply them properly. However, if quick factual information is needed isolated concept learning can be quite useful for certain aspects of problem solving. For example, if your problem is to start a gasoline operated lawnmower it is not necessary to study mechanical engineering. You just need one or two basic ideas, and in this case isolated concept learning is adequate to solve the problem, assuming the lawnmower is in good working order.

However, if the lawnmower is seriously damaged you probably could not solve the problem with isolated concept learning. You would have to employ a different type of learning to solve your problem. This would involve extensive study of the technical aspects of mechanical engineering, and a detailed study of the structure of the lawnmower. I'm calling this type of learning technical-learning. The advantage of this type of learning with problem solving is it gives you the background information needed to solve fairly difficult problems, such as repairing a seriously damaged lawnmower. The disadvantage to technical-learning is it is very time-consuming, it requires ongoing study over a prolonged period of time. With the hypothetical case of the damaged lawnmower, it could involve full-time study for one year if not longer.

Another disadvantage of technical-learning is it does not provide a detailed theoretical background, which is sometimes very useful for difficult problem solving. For example, if your problem was to design a new type of lawnmower, that was superior to other grass cutting machines on the market, the technical knowledge learning would probably not be adequate. A detailed study of mechanical engineering involving theory, and a number of related fields, would probably be helpful with this type of problem. I am calling this type of learning theory-based-learning. The advantage of this type of learning is it provides insight to dynamics, cause and effect, and related theoretical concepts in a specific field of study. This type of learning is associated with the development of true expertise, and it often provides the knowledge needed to be creative. The disadvantage to theory-based-learning is it is very time-consuming. With the above problem, of designing a new type lawnmower, it would probably require anywhere from two to eight years of full-time study in a college of engineering.

Another disadvantage to theory-based-learning is it does not provide the development of hands-on skills. For example, theory- based-learning would probably provide the knowledge to solve the above problem of designing a new type of lawnmower, but it would not provide the hands-on skills needed to actually build the lawnmower. To build a new type of lawnmower would require an additional type of learning, which I am calling hands-on-learning.

Based on the way I'm using the terminology, hands-on-learning is quite different than the conventional types of learning that take place in most classrooms.

Reading and writing about concepts, procedures, and methods, does not provide the practice needed to master skills involving hand movements. For example, if you studied the technical and theoretical aspects of hitting a ball with a baseball bat, for ten years, you probably would not develop any skills useful in playing baseball. However, if you learned the optimum techniques of hitting a baseball, practice regularly for a year or two you would probably be a fairly good baseball player. Even if you practiced a couple of weeks you would probably be a moderately skilled amateur baseball player. The important idea to understand is hands-on-learning is totally different than technical knowledge learning and theory based learning. A simple way to understand this is hands-on learning involve hand movements, coordination, and various perceptual skill development that allows you to recognize relevant structures, by site and touch, which is independent of written and spoken language.

Technical-learning and theory-based-learning are based on language. This type of linguistic-based-learning can of course be converted to hand movements, which is obvious when you carry out a set of written instructions involving hand movements. However the idea to understand is such hand movements are generally unskillful in nature, unless they are practiced over an extensive period of time. For example, you can easily read a set of instructions on how to hit a baseball, but even if you read these instructions 50 times a day for year, you would not develop any baseball skills. You would have to learn by doing. This would involve ongoing practice with the hands and bat.

Developing most skills that involve the hands and/or legs generally requires extensive practice, coupled with trial and error learning. Trial and error learning is quite different than the other types of learning mentioned above. Trial and error learning is based on observation of results, and modification of body movements, techniques, or any other relevant component, with the aim of one or more of the following: of obtaining information, producing a good performance, and/or creating skillful results.

The simplest example of trial and error learning is seen in babies and small children, who might try various actions to see what happens. Some of these actions can actually be accidents, but it still is a type of trial and error learning. For example, when a toddler falls on the floor, he learns that it hurts. He also learns that if he tumbles a glass filled with liquid it falls on the floor, and it makes mommy mad. Trial and error learning is not limited by linguistic abilities. Thus, babies and animals that have little or no linguistic skills can successfully learn by this method.

However, the effectiveness of trial and error learning can be increased greatly by employing more sophisticated strategies than babies or animals use. The first way of improving its effectiveness is to increase the quality and quantity of your observations. For example, if you are trying to learn how to use a new software package with the trial and error process, you will learn quicker, if you carefully observe the results of each action that you employ (keystroke or mouse click). Higher frequencies of corrections and improvements will also increase the effectiveness of the trial and error learning process. This involves the relative frequency of taking note of errors, or less than ideal performance, and making efforts to improve results. For example, if you are trying to learn how to dance well, you can assess your skill every time you complete five hours of practice. This can be done by an assessment by an expert, or self-assessment by observation with large mirrors. However, if you, increase the frequency of assessment, by five times, (one assessment for each hour of practice) you will probably have better results. If you increased it even further, perhaps for every half-hour of practice, one assessment, you would do even better.

If you more or less continuously monitored your performance with large mirrors, or with professional observation, you would probably do much-much better. However, this does not always work out successfully. That is too many corrections can sometimes result in poorer performance, because it produces self-consciousness, and it can interfere with another type of learning that is involved with many types of skills. That is many types of skills are based on unconscious responses that are more or less semiautomatic. For example, when we are learning to dance, we initially concentrate on each step, but after many repetitions, it becomes an automatic process, that involves little or no conscious thought. Another example in this regard, can be seen with learning to type. We initially must focus on every movement, and keystroke, but after a period of prolonged practice, all of this becomes automatic. Another example is walking. When a child first learns to walk, he must focus on each movement, but after practicing walking for several months it becomes an automatic process. When we walk we do not think of the various movements necessary to move our legs, and maintain balance. Still another example can be seen with reading. A child that is learning to read must consciously focus his eyes along each line of type. He must focus on each word or syllable, or even each letter sometimes, as he reads word by word. After several years of practice, all of this becomes automatic for most of us. We just look at a page, and automatically read it.

With many skills an excessive awareness or concentration on the individual movements or components comprising the skill can probably interfere with skill development. This applies to all of the skills that were mentioned above. All of this suggests another type of learning that is associated with many types of skills. I'm calling this type of learning automatic-skill-learning. Automatic-skill-learning includes learning how to speak a language, drive a car, as well as the examples given above. This type of learning (automatic-skill-learning) can be improved by practicing the right techniques, repeatedly, over an extended period of time. The more practice the better the results with this type of learning (automatic-skill-learning). However, practicing incorrect techniques, or less than optimal techniques, could probably interfere with or slow up the mastery of the skill.

Automatic-skill-learning can probably also be improved by gradually removing your focus away from the individual movements and thought processes involved with the skill. If this is done too soon or too quickly, it would most likely result in practicing incorrect technique, and it would produce poor results. However, if it is done at the right point in time, and/or gradually, it would probably produce good results. The idea is to learn not to concentrate on anything that can be done automatically. If you try an experiment you may understand this idea better. Try to walk while carefully thinking about each and every movement, and verbalize each movement that you take while walking. Then repeat the same experiment with reading. Try to focus on each letter and each word as you read, and verbalize each word as you try to read it. This experiment will generally result in a severe reduction in efficiency, because it interferes with the automatic process involved with these skills.

Another category of learning that involves skill development is involved with learning mathematical and logical procedures. This type of skill is very different than the skills discussed above, especially in terms of the need for continuous concentration focused on each and every step. This type of learning is involved with arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, formal logic, any type of symbolic logic, graphical logical representations, flowcharts, circuit diagrams, engineering diagrams, architectural diagrams, etc. I am calling this type of learning logical-mathematical-learning.

This type of learning requires significant ongoing practice to develop a high level of understanding and skill. Logical- mathematical-learning also requires a high degree of concentration, with a focus on a relatively small quantity of material at each point in time. Many people simply do not understand that the rate of comprehension per page for this type of learning is much slower than other types of learning. It can seem excessive to many people to stare at a single page for 30 minutes to an hour, and then spend three hours practicing by applying the concept on the page to various types of problems. Of course, there are simpler mathematical and logical concepts that can be grasped in less time. However, mathematical and logical concepts that are perceived as simpler are usually sensed in this way because the student has some familiarity with the material, which allows quicker mastery.

If we contrast Logical- mathematical-learning with other types of learning it will be insightful. For example, a social science theory can be read at the rate of 10 minutes or less per page. Many theories can be briefly explained in simple language on a single page, with conventional subjects. Compare this with the above (30 minutes to an hour per page, plus three hours or more practice).

The important idea to understand, is when you are studying most subjects, such as history or psychology you are not learning a skill. You are just comprehending and memorizing material. With any type of logical mathematical learning you are practicing various types of problem solving skills, which certainly takes more time than simply comprehending and memorizing. In addition, if you do not understand a theoretical concept in non mathematical subjects, you may not know it. If you can describe the basic concept, and represent some examples, your instructor probably would not noticed that you did not perfectly grasp the concept. However, if you do not perfectly grasp a concept in mathematics or logic, your calculated result will usually be totally incorrect.

Another unique difference between logical-mathematical-learning is the necessity to have an adequate background to understand each new concept that you attempt to learn. A small deficiency, or lack of experience with a relevant mathematical or logical operation, can make it very difficult or impossible to grasp a new concept. With other types of study, a small deficiency in background information, will usually cause little or no noticeable difficulty.

As a result of the unique requirements and properties of logical mathematical learning, many people have difficulty with logic and mathematics problems. An understanding of the above, coupled with the required practice can eliminate the difficulties.

Thus, based on the above, I essentially divided the learning process into seven categories, which are as follows:

· Isolated-concept-learning Look-up- learning

·
Technical-learning

· Theory-based-learning

· Hands-on-learning

· Trial and error learning

· Automatic-skill-learning

· Logical-mathematical learning

The important idea to understand here is that the learning process could be divided into different segments than the above. For example, motor skill learning, language skills, linguistic based knowledge, mathematics based concepts. I chose the above seven categories because it works well with the problem solving process that I am presenting.

Another very important idea to keep in mind is most learning tasks require one or more of the above types of learning. Usually it is more than one type that is involved with most major study efforts, such as taking a typical college-level course. For example, if your goal is to become a technician, you must obtain technical-learning, hands-on-learning, trial and error learning, and perhaps some theory-based-learning. If your goal was to become an engineer, you would have to obtain theory-based- learning, and technical-learning.

However, with ever your endeavor, or problem if you incorporate all of the seven types of learning, into your learning strategy, you will probably have a very significant advantage in the knowledge and skills you require, especially in relation to creativity and problem solving. Especially important idea is to incorporate theory-based-learning and technical-learning with hands-on-learning.

Another useful concept of learning is what I am calling focus of the learning. The same course of study can be learned with many different types of focus. For example, theoretical physics can be taught with a focus on engineering, or a focus on pure scientific research. This difference in focus would generally comprise very little difference in curriculum, at least based on the way I am using the concept. Specifically, the concept of focus that I am using here can be represented in terms of a series of questions that relate to the focus. Using the above example a theoretical physics course focused on engineering, would involve answering the following question every time a new concept was presented: Can this concept be applied to engineering, and if so how? Has this concept already been applied to engineering, and if so how? What are all the possible ways that this concept might be applied to engineering? The same course on theoretical physics focused on scientific research would involve questions related to research, such as the following (each time a new concept is encountered): How can this concept relate to research? How has this concept been previously applied to research? Does this concept suggest any interesting lines of research? Are there any deficiencies in this concept that might be resolved with research?

From the perspective of problem solving, the focus of your study is usually the problem. This involves questions such as the following, (each time a new concept is encountered). How can this concept be applied to my problem? Is there any possible way that this concept can be applied to my problem? Is there any way that this concept can be used to solve or alleviate my problem? What are all the possible ways that this concept might be used to help me solve my problem or obtain my goal?

In general, for problem solving, a useful focus is often practical applications. This involves questions such as the following (each time a new concept is encountered): How can this concept be applied to practical situations? Does this concept have any practical applications? Can we use this concept for practical applications? What are all the possible practical applications of this concept? Even, highly theoretical subjects, including theoretical chemistry and physics, can be focused on practical applications. This essentially involves asking the above questions each time a new concept is encountered.

It is possible for any study to involve more than one focus, which can comprise two or more sets of questions. For example, a course on theoretical physics could be focused on pure scientific research, and practical engineering applications. This would involve the two sets of questions, which were presented above, where one set represented engineering, and the other scientific research.

Another important concept of learning is the learning criterion that is used to measure the relative degree of successful mastery of material. For example, in the conventional classroom, the learning criterion might be based on multiple choice test scores. Alternatively, it may be based on essay questions? It can also be based on take-home writing assignments, such as term papers. It can be any combination of the above is well. The important idea here is that the learning criterion is not necessarily equivalent, with these different types of measurements. Perhaps, under carefully controlled conditions they can be made equivalent. In general, each instructor that teaches a class in the same subject area will have a learning criterion that is more or less unique to that instructor. This might or might not represent a significant difference from one instructor to another that is teaching the same course.

Students that get the highest marks are often those who carefully attune their studies to the instructor's learning criterion. This usually consists of students asking the instructor detailed questions that relate to upcoming examinations. This includes the following questions: what's on the test? What should we study? Is this going to be on the test? Are we going to be tested on this? This can also involve obtaining old tests from the instructor, and studying the questions on the old examinations extensively. This is usually coupled with carefully taking notes based on precise wording provided by the instructor, and carefully studying this material. Students that do not make any attempt to attune themselves to the instructor's learning criterion might obtain a very low grade, even if they mastered the material they studied.

When you are studying independently to solve a problem, the learning criterion or goal is based on obtaining the knowledge and skills needed to solve your problem. This can be very different than studying the same material to pass an examination given by an instructor. This might raise the question, which is more difficult? The answer of courses it depends on the problem. However, generally, solving a difficult problem requires a detailed theoretical and practical understanding of relevant material, coupled with the knowledge of how to apply the material to a real world problem. This is probably very often significantly more challenging than studying to pass an examination.

Subtopic: Step-22 The Trial and Error Process

The twenty-second step of the MAPS methodology is the trial and error process. Trial and error is very important in all types of problem solving. The reason for this is whatever theories, techniques, or strategies you use, the trial and error process can provide corrective feedback that will lead you to your goal. Even if you start with incorrect assumptions and inadequate techniques, the trial and error process can indicate the needed corrections to successfully obtain your goal. The trial and error process involves focusing very carefully on immediate results, and making any needed corrections to obtain the best possible results.

The trial and error process becomes more understandable, when we examined the alternative strategy. The alternative involves an attempt to figure out precisely what is required to obtain a goal, and then carry out the needed actions to obtain the objective. This is not a bad strategy, if we could truly figure out all the relevant factors. However, this is often impossible, especially with most highly complex problems, and with most long-term personal goals. When the trial and error process is properly carried out, no matter where we start, we are likely to obtain the goal, if the goal is attainable. If the goal is unattainable, we are likely to obtain the best alternative to the original goal, with the trial and error process and the methodology presented in this book. Of course, when the trial and error process is used, you always want to have as much knowledge, theoretical background, and the best techniques, to minimize the number of errors and trials.

The important idea here is to be certain that you are employing the trial and error process in your goal attainment efforts, and to be certain that you are focusing on relevant feedback. It is helpful to understand the trial and error process: as a method of evaluating a series of tiny successful and failed attempts to obtain tiny subgoals. This involves making corrections for each failure, as well as learning what types of corrections and efforts lead to success.

Another important idea to understand is that many complex problems involve more failed attempts then successful attempts. This idea can be represented in terms of a ratio. The number of successful trials, divided by the number of failed trials, which will equal the success-failure-ratio. Ideally, we want this ratio to be as high as possible. However, with difficult problems and goals it is likely to be quite low, but this should not be discouraging, because with enough trials, we will eventually obtain the goal.

Another important idea about the trial and error process is that each attempt provides the potential to learn what are successful actions, what are neutral actions, and the type of actions that lead to failed attempts. Thus, the trial and error process is also a learning process, which should be obvious, because it was already discussed in terms of a learning process, in step-21. It is one of the most effective ways of mastering the computer, especially if it is combined with other learning strategies.

As explained earlier, experimentation is not the same as the trial and error process, but they are closely related. The way I am using the terminology, experimentation involves one highly controlled trial, with the goal of obtaining information. To illustrate the difference between experimentation and the trial and error process, I am using a hypothetical procedure as an example, which I am calling method-X. If we evaluate method-X with experimentation, we want to find out if method-X is an efficient technique that produces successful results. That is we are trying to answer the question: does method-X produce successful results, is the answer yes or no? However, if we use method-X with the trial and error process, we will modify method-X, based on feedback, in such a way that it produces successful results. We are interested in the results, but we are not interested in the effectiveness of method-X, when we are applying the trial and error process. After using method-X, in the trial and error process, we may end up with an entirely new technique, as a result of continuously making tiny improvements and modifications in method-X. Method-X can evolve into an entirely different method over time, which does not resemble method-X, as a result of a huge number of very tiny modifications.

This technique evolved before humans or animals. It is one of the methods of the evolutionary process. That is in nature the trial and error process takes place spontaneously, and it primarily involves tiny randomly occurring changes in genetic material. This occasionally results in improvements in survival and the rate of reproduction. When the genetic changes do not contribute to survival or reproduction, they are not passed on to succeeding generations, or they are not passed on to the same degree as modifications that contribute to survival and reproduction. That is if the genetic variation is not successful, by definition, the plant or animal fails to reproduce enough to maintain the existence of the genetic variation. The important idea is the successful genetic changes that occur are usually very tiny. However, a huge number of these tiny changes over millions of years can result in the development of plants and animals that have no resemblance to their early ancestors. That is a huge number of very tiny changes over time can result in a totally new type of entity, whether it takes place in nature, or with your problem solving efforts.

The above raises an interesting question: What do you modify in the trial and error process? The answer is of course it depends on what you are dealing with, but there is a general concept here, which suggests all of the following:

· Hand movements: Examples are seen with almost any activity involving the hand, such as throwing darts, driving a car, forming something with clay.

· Behavior: Examples involve almost any activity, including the way people change their behavior in response to the way they are treated by others.

· The precise nature of an action: This is a more general concept, and it includes both of the above (Hand movements, and behavior). The actions can be external (movements of the limbs) or internal (changes in heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, body chemistry).

· Speed: People change their speed of walking, running or driving in response to environmental and internal feedback responses.

· Our theories and assumptions: We modify our theories and assumptions based on our experiences.

· Our thinking How we think, including our emotional responses are affected by external and internal feedback.

· Direction: We change, or correct, according to our destination when we are walking, running or driving.

· Shape Example is a person trying to form something with clay will manipulate shape based on visual and tactile feedback

· Size Example is a person trying to form something with clay, will adjust the size of the object, and the quantity of clay used, based on visual and tactile feedback.

· Temperature An individual will respond to temperature change in many ways, the most visible is an adjustment in the amount of clothing they have on.

· Chemical concentration Our body maintains various chemicals, such as sodium and potassium, in precise concentrations, and in response to feedback will make corrections.

In general, the more aware you become of the trial and error process, the better. However, awareness ideally should relate to the specific set of circumstances and related goal that you are dealing with. Trial and error is the same process in the general sense, but in the specific sense, it is different in each situation. In one situation, you may be adjusting hand and leg movements in an effort to steer an automobile through rush-hour traffic. In another situation, you may be adjusting the words you are using and the tone of voice, in response to the people that you are talking to.

Question to ask your self in this regard: what do I have to modify, in response to what stimuli? What changes do I have to observe, and what are the corrective responses needed, to obtain my goal.

There are times when the trial and error process is totally inappropriate or of moderate value. When the individual trials pose very significant risks, it is obviously necessary to use other methods. When it is feasible to work out every step, needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal, the trial and error process is not necessary. Many types of problems and goals can be worked out in advance, based on theoretical concepts, experience, and expertise in specific fields, all of which makes the trial and error process unnecessary. If you know exactly how to do something, and you are working in a reasonably predictable environment, you simply do not need the trial and error process. Even with extremely complex industrial goals, such as large-scale construction projects, the steps and all the needed information can usually be worked out in advance, which eliminates the need for trial and error. Trial and error process is most useful for problems that do not have an apparent solution, scientific objectives involving unknowns, personal goals especially long-term objectives. The trial and error process is especially useful when you are faced with unpredictability, especially if it is coupled with complexity, and inadequate information needed to obtain an objective.

Whenever it is feasible and cost-effective you should try to reduce the need for the trial and error process, by obtaining all the information, and working out the steps to the solution or goal in advance. Even if you can work out some of the steps with a reasonably high degree of certainty, you will probably benefit substantially. When it is not feasible to work out each step, it is sometimes possible to work out a series of approximate steps that might be fairly imprecise, but they can sometimes reduce the number of needed trials and errors needed to obtain a goal. In general, the more information, and experience you and your assistance have the less need for the trial and error process.

Note, the trial and error process is described in various sections of this book with additional details.

Subtopic: Step-23 Experimentation

The twenty-third step of the maps methodology is experimentation, which is discussed in a number of sections of this book. As previously explained, experimentation is a controlled trial or test to obtain information. This can involve a controlled trial to prove or disprove a hypothesis, or theoretical concept. In science, especially in health and medicine, carefully controlled trials are often carried out. This usually involves two groups of people, one group receives an experimental component, such as a new drug, a diet, an exercise program, etc. The other group receives a placebo component, such as a capsule with no medication in it. The two groups are compared after a period of time, to determine if the experimental component produced any differences in comparison to the placebo component. Many people consider the controlled experiment the ideal, and the foundation of scientific inquiry. There is no doubt of course, that controlled experiments have many advantages. They can very often reveal misconceptions, and they can reveal the effectiveness, or in effectiveness of new medications. Controlled experimentation can also reveal unanticipated results, such as adverse side effects of medication.

However, controlled experimentation has many disadvantages also. One of the most obvious is it usually requires a considerable amount of time, money and effort to set up a controlled experiment. Another disadvantage that is less apparent, relates to human nature, and the statistical procedures often used with controlled experiments. Specifically, experiments are often presented with statistics based on the probability of the results happening based on random chance. Of course, good experimental results will have a very low probability of spontaneously occurring as a result of random chance. Unfortunately, there is a difference in the concept of mathematical probability, and probability that involves human intervention. This will become apparent in the following paragraphs.

Researches and journals are not likely to be interested in negative results that do not predict and interesting outcome. They are more likely to be interested in results that are positive, and appear to prove something to be true. For example, if you carry out a carefully controlled experiment, to prove the hypothesis that human beings cannot control the random chance outcomes of a roulette wheel, probably no scientific journal would be interested in the results, assuming you successfully prove your hypothesis.

The important idea to understand is: when a very large number of researches carry out experiments, some of the most interesting and unusual results will be the result of random chance. For example, if a very large number of scientists experimented with mind control of the roulette wheel almost all would get negative results, but a few would get positive results as a result of random chance. The negative results would probably not get published, because they are obvious and not very interesting. However the positive results might very well be published because they are interesting. In addition, researches are human beings, they make mistakes, and some of them may consciously or unconsciously conduct experiments that will falsely prove their hypothesis.

Thus, experimental results that are considered statistically significant, (not likely to occur as a result of random chance) are calculated without taking into account the human factors mentioned above. The solution to this problem can actually be expressed mathematically. Specifically, a distinction between a perfect experimental system and a real experimental system can be expressed mathematically. The real experimental system has a certain probability of human error, as well as errors that result from random chance. For example, experimental results that have a mathematical probability of one in a hundred of being incorrect will have a much higher probability of being incorrect, when the human factors are considered. This idea can simply be represented mathematically by multiplying the ideal probability by a correction factor that represents the probability of human error, which will result in a higher probability of error or incorrect experimental results. The difficult challenge of this would be to figure out a way of estimating the probability of human error in terms of a mathematical correction factor. If I had to guess (or guesstimate) at the value of such a factor, I would estimate it to be about 5 to 20 with most small-scale experiments published in medical and psychological journals. This means an experiment that mathematically had a one in a hundred chance of being incorrect: would have a chance of one in twenty to one in five of being incorrect. However, research results involving chemistry and physics, are usually dealing with simple systems, which are less likely to be influenced by human factors, and the correction factor would probably be much less than the estimate I gave above. If I had to guesstimate, I would estimate a correction factor for human error in published work in physics and chemistry of about 1.4

Keep in mind that when the subjects are subatomic particles, atoms and molecules, they are simple, compared to human subjects. Experimental error can occur as a result of the human subjects as well as the result of the experimenter. Human subjects are of course very complicated systems, and whenever you experiment with people, whether it involves medicine or psychology, there is a high probability of error, because of the uniqueness of human beings. For example, a hydrogen atom of a specific isotope is identical to other hydrogen atoms of the same isotope. However, human beings are all different, which can result in incorrect experimental results in some cases.

Another difficulty with controlled experiments when applied to complex systems, such as human beings, involves the experimental component and its interaction with other factors. Examples will clarify this idea. Experiments that attempt to evaluate drugs, diets, or exercise programs, eliminate factors that are likely to occur in the non-experimental condition. For example, a drug company that is testing a new cough medication will choose experimental subjects that have a cough, and they may eliminate individuals that have other medical problems, are taking other medications, or have unusual diets or living habits. However, if the drug passes the testing phase, it will generally be sold to the general public. This includes individuals who have medical conditions besides a cough, and patience who are taking other medications, as well as individuals that have unusual diets or living habits. Thus, in the experimental group the drug can be shown to be safe and effective, but when sold to the general public, the same drug may prove to be ineffective or hazardous, at least for some individuals. There is actually a very simple solution to this type of problem. The idea is to understand that the experimental group is not likely to be the same as the general public that will purchase a drug. Then the idea is simply to conduct surveys, and evaluations of the individuals that purchase the drug, to obtain more precise information. Another alternative is to conduct drug evaluations with experimental groups that are randomly selected, or groups that are likely to be representative of the individuals that will purchase the drug. This would include individuals that have other medical conditions, and are taking other medications. The resulting information obtained by the above methods can reveal better results, worse results, or no difference from the experimental group. Keep in mind that the above methods have potential application with many types of problems, such as with product development, the evaluation of advertising campaigns, and the assessment of instructional text.

Carefully controlled experiments are not always feasible for problem solving, especially with personal problems. Also controlled experiments are not likely to be cost-effective or otherwise for most small and medium-sized business problems. The most efficient experimental procedures are simple and informal experiments for these types of problems. Even when controlled formal experiments are feasible, it is probably advisable to start with a number of informal low-cost experiments, to determine if more expensive and time-consuming formal experimentation is justified.

Examples of simple informal experiments include trying a product, which perhaps can be compared with a previously used product. Just trying, to see what happens is sometimes a good strategy. If something interesting results, controlled formal experiments can always be carried out, if it is necessary to obtain scientific evidence for the results. In general, what works for one individual, group, or organization, will not necessarily work for others. Thus, informal experiments can be used to evaluate hypothesis, methods, products, and anything else from a personal level.

Subtopic: Step-24: Testing the Results

The twenty-fourth step of the MAPS methodology is testing the results, of your problem solving efforts. This is somewhat similar to the previous subtopic, on experimentation, but it is also quite different because it is focused specifically on the results of the problem solving effort. This involves assessments to determine if you are making progress towards your goal or solution, or assessments to determine if you reached your goal. Very often, this type of assessment is not necessary, especially with simple problems, because it is obvious if you reached your goal or not. However, with difficult problems that a very complex, it is sometimes quite difficult to determine if progress is being made, and it can even be difficult to determine if a goal was actually obtained.

Testing can consist of informal assessments that involve an intuitive evaluation, if precise mathematical measurement is not feasible. For example, if your goal involved improving your level of physical attractiveness, intuitive assessments would be appropriate, but if you were trying to lose weight, precise mathematical measurements, with a scale, would be the correct evaluation procedure. However, there are situations where measurements cannot be obtained with an instrument that provides mathematical precision. Sometimes, the only feasible assessment is intuitive in nature. Intuitive assessments can be improved by taking a number of self assessments. In addition, asking a number of people their opinion can also be a helpful source of assessment.

The most important utility of testing is to determine if you are making progress. This can involve almost continuous or daily testing, such as an individual that is trying to lose weight, can use the scale every day. In addition, setting subgoals, with time limits can be a useful strategy to evaluate progress. The idea is to see how close you are coming to your subgoals. When setting subgoals, in this regard, it is a good idea, to set three subgoals, easy, moderate but very realistic, and difficult. For example, if you're trying to lose weight, you can set an easy subgoal of losing two pounds per month, a moderate subgoal of losing four pounds a month, and a difficult subgoal of losing eight pounds per month.

The primary idea of this type of assessment is to make evaluations that can be used with the trial and error process. Specifically, if you are not meeting your subgoals, you must engage in thinking, evaluation, obtain more information; determine what is going wrong with your efforts. This allows you to make corrections in your strategies, methods, and anything else that might be relevant to your problem solving efforts.

Subtopic: Step-25: Reevaluating and Correcting

The twenty-fifth step of the MAPS methodology is reevaluating and correcting. This involves periodic revaluations of the various steps of the maps methodology, and everything else that relates directly or indirectly to your problem or goal, with the objective of making improvements. This includes periodically examining goals and related plans to make any feasible improvements, based on the knowledge and experience you gained in the problem solving effort. This can also include an overall reassessment of your life situation, and how it is being affected by your problem solving effort.

Reassessment and correction should whenever possible involve attempts to improve all of the components, methods and strategies involve with the problem solving effort. This should also include replacing less functional components, with more functional entities. This can involve improving or replacing equipment, software, tools, and techniques. Employing new methods, strategies and equipment as well as obtaining new sources of information and expert assistance can also be quite helpful.

After obtaining new insights, experience, or reaching or failing to reach subgoals or goals is often a good time for reevaluating and correcting. When you have completed your goal attainment effort, if you succeeded, it may be profitable for future endeavors to evaluate how you succeeded, and assess if you could have completed the effort more efficiently. This involves asking the questions: What did I do right to succeed, and how can I incorporate this knowledge and experience into future endeavors? Did I make any blunders, and how can I avoid them in the future?

When you have completed your effort, but failed to solve your problem, you should carefully determine why you were unable to obtain your goal. Did the effort fail because of deficiencies of components needed to solve the problem, such as lack of money, lack of time, unavailability of expert assistance, unavailability of needed information? The most common reasons for goal attainment failure (including failures to obtain subgoals) is inadequate investment in time. This can happen for many reasons, but perhaps the most common is a conflict with values, (or conflict with priorities). Often, on an intellectual level, we place a very high value on a goal, but on an emotional level, we place higher values on other aspects of our lives, including activities that provide immediate pleasure. Another common reason for failures to obtain goals and subgoals is lack of money. It is often very expensive to carry out a problem solving effort, and it can cost considerably more than we estimated. Sometimes failures can be connected with poor investments in time and money, which can relate to poor choices of strategies, methods, equipment, experts and technicians. An especially important consideration is the effectiveness of the individuals and organizations that have been providing assistance for your problem solving effort.

Still another reason for failures to obtain goals and subgoals is lack of information. Problems often involve unknowns. This can involve either an inadequate understanding of the dynamics, cause and effect sequences, and/or structural components involved with the problem. However, with many problems, we may have successfully obtained a detailed understanding of all the relevant dynamics and structural components, but we may not know how to manipulate and change these components in a way that would solve our problem. When this is a relevant factor for a failure, the objective should be to determine if there are any documents, experts, or technicians that have the needed information to solve the problem. This can include very extensive searches to find the needed information and/or experts. Of course, the information that is needed to solve a problem may not exist, such as in the case of an incurable disease, which may suggest the need for experimental research to obtain the needed data.

A major part of the reevaluation and correction step when you have failed to obtain your goal, or when it appears that you will not be able to solve your problem, is to consider alternatives. The first alternative is to repeat the problem solving effort, and perhaps devise new plans, and utilize better strategies methods and equipment to obtain your goal. If you do this, it is important to understand why the initial effort failed, so you can avoid repeating the failure. Ideally, this should involve a very detailed and precise understanding of all the factors that contributed to the failure.

Often a good alternative, when your effort failed is to consider an alternative goal. This can be a goal that satisfies similar needs as your original goal. It can also be a partial solution or different solution to an adverse problem.

Topic: Non-Computerized Template Aided Problem Solving

In the previous topics, I presented problem solving methods that involve templates and the computer. These methods were primarily for very difficult problems, and for individuals that have at least intermediate computer skills. In this topic I am presenting a problem solving technique that involves templates, but a computer is not absolutely necessary, especially if someone is providing assistance to the individual with the problem. This technique is much simpler than the methods that were already presented, but of course it is not likely to be as effective for very difficult problems. However, it is probably more efficient for simpler problems, and it can be helpful to at least some degree for difficult problems, for individuals that do not have computer skills. This technique is useful for assisting individuals with various types of personal problems and goals.

The technique involves typewritten or handwritten templates, with a series of questions, and instructions that relate to the specific problem or goal. The questions are carefully selected to increase creative thinking, and to stimulate the evaluation of many possibilities. The instructions should relate to a specific problem, and it ideally should include a list of professionals, organizations, and/or self-help groups that can provide assistance or additional referrals.

The templates ideally should be printed on paper with holes punched for storage in a loose-leaf. This can allow for a large number of sheets of paper, each having instructions, questions, and other information needed to assist with a problem or goal. The templates should have adequate room to answer questions in writing, and to write notes and additional telephone numbers with a pen or pencil.

The usefulness of this technique in a specific situation depends very much on the utility of information and questions that the template contains. The templates that were previously discussed were computerized documents that could be modified easily and repeatedly by the trial and error process, which eliminated the need for highly relevant questions or information. That is the computerized templates can easily be modified by the trial and error process in such a way as to produce a highly relevant and useful template, even if it initially contained useless information and questions. Whatever was needed would be obtained once the problem solving efforts started, and the trial and error process was employed. Computerized research strategies would provide any information that was needed. With the computerized templates any extraneous data could easily be deleted. With the non-computerized templates none of this is true. Thus it is important to have the most accurate and useful information possible when creating non-computerized templates. This is especially the case when you are creating the template to help someone else.

The usefulness of this technique, when assisting another individual, is probably greatly enhanced in most cases if you can listen to their problems, concerns and goals. This ideally should be coupled with your verbal responses providing many alternatives, information and questions that stimulate their creative thinking.

Thus, in general non-computerized problem solving templates should contain specific data that relates to the specific problem and individual. However, non-computerized templates can also contain some general questions and instructions such as the following:

What are all the ways that you can describe your problem or goal? Try to come up with several different descriptions, and then choose the best description for your problem solving efforts?

What are all the possible causes for your problem? List them in order of importance. What are all the possible solutions to your problem? List them in order of importance.

What are all the possible factors that are directly or indirectly contributing to your problem or interfering with your goal?

List the factors in order of importance. List, all the possible ways that you can eliminate or circumvent these factors.

What are all the possible sources of assistance that you can obtain for your problem or goal, such as assistance from experts, physicians, lawyers, government agencies, private agencies, family, friends, etc? Make a list, in order of importance, of all the individuals and organizations that might be able to help you with your problem or goal. Then, contact the individuals and organizations on the top of the list, and proceed in sequence towards the bottom, to assess possibilities of obtaining assistance from them.

Section-3: The General Problem Solving Methodology and Goals

Topic: Problem-Solving and Goal Setting

Subtopic: This Book Presents a General Problem Solving Methodology that is Especially Effective for Difficult Problems

The general problem solving methodology presented in this booklet is focused primarily on challenging problems, especially when there are no apparent solutions. When we are faced with problems that have no discernible solution, most of us will accept that the solution is unobtainable and adjust to the situation. The methodology presented in this book offers an alternative approach for difficult problems, which can lead to unexpected solutions. However, when solutions cannot be obtained, this methodology will usually help you obtain some type of optimum resolution, which is explained in the next subtopic. In addition, the use of the methodology in a problem solving effort is likely to result in insights, which can lead to a solution at a later point in time. The general problem solving methodology consists of all the techniques, strategies and ideas presented throughout this book.

Subtopic: The General Problem Solving Methodology Can Help You Find an Optimum Resolution to a Problem. But What is an Optimum Resolution to a Problem?

Based on the way I am using the terminology, optimum resolution to a problem means: the best possible resolution to a problem, which results in one or more of the following:

· The best possible solution This is an ideal resolution to a problem, and with persistence and an ongoing effort, using the best techniques it is often obtainable. However, the ideal is not always obtainable, even with the best methodologies, and then the following alternatives should be considered.

· The best possible solution under a given set of circumstances Sometimes circumstances prevent us from obtaining an ideal solution, but often very satisfactory solutions that are less than ideal can be obtained.

· The best possible way of circumventing a problem Sometimes when an adverse problem cannot be solved, the difficulty can be circumvented. A simple example of circumventing is seen in automobile travel, where an alternate route is taken to avoid a roadblock or a traffic jam. Another example of circumventing a problem can be seen with people that lost a limb. The limb cannot be replaced, but the difficulty can usually be at least partly circumvented with artificial limbs.

· The best possible way of circumventing a problem under a given set of circumstances Sometimes circumstances prevent us from circumventing a problem in an ideal way. However, often there are less than optimal methods of circumventing a difficulty that may produce satisfactory results.

· When a specific goal is very difficult or unobtainable, it is sometimes possible to find alternative goals that provide similar rewards. When problems cannot be solved or circumvented, most people will eventually give up in discouragement. A better option is to evaluate your desires and situation in an effort to set alternative goals that satisfied similar needs. For example, assume that the original goal was to buy a second home, in a wilderness area, for summer vacations, and the goal was too expensive. A more obtainable alternative goal, that is less expensive, would be to rent a cottage in a wilderness area for a couple of weeks each summer for a vacation. Focusing on alternative goals is often a useful strategy for difficult or unattainable occupational objectives.

· When dealing with difficult problems a good strategy is to delineate alternative goals as a contingency plan, in case the original goal turns out to be unobtainable.

When dealing with adverse problems, that cannot be solved, an alternative goal may not be totally satisfying. However, alternative goals can sometimes eliminate or reduce the discomfort associated with adverse problems.

· An acceptance that a goal is unobtainable under a given set of circumstances can be quite functional, especially if it results in refocusing efforts on other activities, pleasurable pursuits and obtainable goals. Totally giving up difficult goals is sometimes necessary, such as when they result in repeated failures, waste of resources, and excessive emotional stress. Sometimes after prolonged efforts and failures setting new challenging goals is counterproductive. Under such circumstances it may be better to set easily obtainable goals that relate to living a happier and healthier life, and to pursue activities that are healthy and pleasurable. This can involve goals such as: engaging in at least one new activity each week to see if it is enjoyable, starting new hobbies, and setting health related goals, such as obtaining regular exercise, learning and practicing relaxation techniques.

· When dealing with a goal that might be unobtainable, plan a rewarding itinerary to obtain the goal. Based on the way I’m using the terminology a rewarding itinerary is a plan that is focused on obtaining a goal, but it also provides other opportunities and rewards as well. This concept will be clarified in the following topic on goal setting.

Very Important Subtopic: There Are Many Techniques That Deal With Problem-Solving. How Do I Know Which Idea Is Correct?

You can get a huge amount of advice on how to deal with problems from friends, family, and experts of all types. There is a huge amount of literature available in books, magazines and on the Internet, that provide advice, strategies, methods, and theories how to solve problems. Some of this material is focused on specific types of problems and can be found in self-help books. There is also much literature on how to obtain creative solutions. Overall, some of the literature is clearly impractical for real world-problems, but much of it does have value if used in the right situation. This book also presents many strategies, methods and theories that deal with problem solving.

All of the above raises a very interesting question: which strategies, methods and theories are correct, the best and most efficient? Actually, the answer to this question is not very difficult. The best strategies, methods and theories are the ones that work for you in a specific problem solving situation. The idea is to think of every strategy, technique, and theory as tools that can be used in various situations in various ways to solve problems. You must of course use the correct tools in each situation, and what works in one situation, may not work in another. Thus, you often have to engage in experimentation, and the trial and error process, when trying to solve difficult problems; because this is the only way you can tell if you are using the correct tools.

Very Important Subtopic: Modify Everything, Based on Feedback and Experience in Such a Way that it Works for You.

In this subtopic one of the most important concepts in this book is explained. This concept has wide application for all types of problem solving and is also useful for almost every aspect of life. It is worthwhile to read this subtopic a number of times, and to think about how you can apply it to your problems and general life situation.

All of the strategies, techniques and principles in this book are presented with the understanding that they should be modified in such a way that they work to solve the specific problem you are using them for. However, there is a very important general principle here that applies to everything that you use to solve problems and obtain goals. The principle is, as suggested in the heading, modify everything, based on feedback and experience, in such a way that it produces optimum results in the specific situation that you are dealing with. Basically, this concept can be put into a general formula, which will provide clarification, and extend its application and utility. This is done in the following four paragraphs.

In the general formula that follows in the next paragraph, I use the letter X to represent any component, including all of the following: any strategy, technique, principle, physical environment, your home, your workplace, any type of equipment that is relevant to your goal attainment efforts or your life in general, a computer, kitchen utensils, tools, machinery, furniture, worktable, desk, chair, your bed, any type of plan, goal, or problem, your college curriculum, your philosophy, your knowledge, your beliefs, your health habits, your diet, your exercise program, your style of dress, the way your workplace is arranged, the way your house is decorated, your relationships, your friendships, the way you interact with other people, the way you treat other people, the way you communicate, any concept or idea, including the one you are reading right now, any type of instructions, information, or data, the advice and information you obtained from friends, relatives, technicians, and experts, magazines, books, television, a team of experts, technician and organizations assisting you with a problem or goal, etc.

Modify, X based on the trial and error process, experimentation, your knowledge and experience, in such a way that X produces successful results in the specific situation that you are dealing with. This generally involves working with X and a problem for a while, and perhaps gathering information about X from the Internet, books, friends, experts, and other sources. Often, the optimum strategy is to practice using X for an extended period of time, and make gradual changes in X, based on the experience you gain in your practice sessions.

The word modify, here means to change with the intent of improving the functionality, utility, efficiency, and effectiveness, as assessed from the specific situation that you are dealing with, at a specific point in time. Modifications that result in improvements in X in one situation, may or may not represent improvements in another situation. It is important to keep this idea in mind, and to try to improve X in each and every situation that you use X in.

An important idea to understand is when X is modified, it should be also modified in such a way that it is enjoyable, and increases overall physiological, social and psychological well-being of all concerned. Some examples where this was not done will clarify this idea. The Industrial Revolution came about as a result of modifications in methods of production, which resulted in a great increase in productivity, and a reduction in costs of manufacturing. However, the modifications in production methods often made the work very unpleasant for the employees, and in some cases endangered the physical and mental health of the workers. These improvements in production also contributed to various economic and social problems. In addition, the improvements also caused environmental pollution, of air and water.

The three previous paragraphs raises the question: How can we modify X, in such a way that it results in improvements, efficiency, productivity, and/or a solution to our problem. In addition, how can we modify X in a way that it is enjoyable, and increases overall physiological, social and psychological well-being of all concerned? The answer is you must learn how to do this, by studying X, as you use it, in the trial and error process, by reading about X, by talking to friends and experts about X, by experimenting with X, by learning how to be creative with X, etc.

Answering the following questions can help you modify X and improve X, especially in creative ways. These questions can be answered in your mind, a piece of paper, or on a computer screen with word processing software in detailed written language. Answering than on a computer screen, can be more time-consuming, but will probably produce better results in most cases.

· What are all the possible ways that you can improve X?

· What are all the websites that can help you improve and understand X and your problem? (Make a list of all the websites that you can consult for assistance.)

· How can you use X to improve your problem solving effort?

· How can you make X and your problem solving efforts, and your life in general, more enjoyable, healthier, more productive, and more functional?

· Where can you obtain useful assistants or information about X and your goal attainment efforts?

· Can you change the shape of X, in such a way that it results in improvements?

· Can you increase the size of X in such a way that it results in improvements?

· Can you reduce the size of X in such a way that it results in improvements?

· Are there any risks associated with the use of X, or the modification of X, and if so how can you reduce these risks?

· What there any significant costs associated with X, and if so how can you reduce them?

· Can you create your own questions that are relevant to you, and/or X, and your specific problem solving situation? If so, make a list of these questions and answer them.

Subtopic: Step-By-Step Instructions is the Ideal, But What Do You Do if You Do Not Have Step-By-Step Instructions?

There are two ways that information can be used, and both ways are essential for problem-solving. The first, involves using information in a precise way, such as the way we apply a set of step-by-step instructions. With this strategy the information has to be precise and accurate and apply specifically to our problem. For example, if our problem involves travel directions, we need and expect logical, step-by-step information that is precise. We must know precisely what train to take, where the train station is located, and what station to get off the train, etc. We must apply the directions precisely, in terms of our actions, to get to our destination.

Precise step-by-step information in relation to a problem is an ideal. It allows us to efficiently solve a problem, in a relatively quick manner, without wasting time, without hypothesizing, without the complex applications of general theories, without investing effort in developing creative solutions, without experimenting, without researching, without asking people, without trial and error. This is the most efficient way to solve a problem. This raises the question what do you do if you do not have the precise step-by-step information to solve a problem? With simple problems we often do have the step-by-step information, and when we don’t we can usually get it by asking somebody, or by looking it up.

However, with most complex problems, including typical personal goals, there is no step-by-step information available that relates precisely to the problem. Part of the reason for this is with complex problems, each situation is usually unique. However, there is often much information available, but usually it is either incomplete, (such as information for an incurable disease) or the available information does not apply perfectly to your problem.

To solve rear-world complex problems, you usually must do all of the following: Gather information from all sources, including the Internet, books and from professionals. Maintain an ongoing effort, especially involving any needed practice that relates to your goal. Test out any technique that might help you with your problem. Apply various creative strategies and creative techniques in efforts to work out your own ideas, theories, techniques and solutions. Experiment, and use the trial and error process to determine what works for you in your individual situation.

Topic: How do You Set Your Goals? Do You Know a Number of Goal Setting Strategies?

Subtopic: An Introduction to Goal Setting

This topic is focused on goal setting, but it is necessary to first provide a brief review on some of the basic problem solving strategies and methods. However, some of this material was already presented in more detail, or will be presented in more detail later on in this book.

The basic idea, a problem solving can be represented in three steps, which are 1) define the problem and related solution or goal. 2) Create a goal related plan on how to solve your problem or obtain your goal. This usually involves a delineation in your mind, and/or on paper, or ideally on a computer screen, of the steps, methods and techniques that you will use to obtain your solution or goal. The goal related plan does not have to contain every detail, because very often details are not known, and must be worked out during the goal attainment effort, such as with the trial and error process. Of course, often it is better to have all the details worked out before you start your goal attainment efforts, but it is usually impossible to do this except with very simple problems, or when all the relevant factors are known.

Often, there is a considerable amount of uncertainty with most goal attainment efforts. The environment and the people you interact with are not perfectly predictable. People's abilities, inclinations, motivations, health, fluctuate considerably. This of course applies to you also. Thus, the best goal attainment plans are created with uncertainty in mind. For example, if you are creating plans to go to college to obtain a bachelor's degree, the financial components of your plan should contain alternatives. For example, if you expect to obtain a certain amount of money from your parents, you should also determine how you will manage if all of that money is not actually provided. That is your plan should contain a delineation of alternative ways of obtaining funding, such as employment during the summer months, financial aid, student loans, etc. In general, the more alternatives components a goal related plan contains the better. Thus when creating a goal related plan, the question that you should ask yourself, in relation to each step is if this step fails, what are the alternative steps toward my goal?

3) When you obtain your solution or goal, you should test your results, to determine if you really solved your problem, or obtained your goal. Often, this is obvious, but not always. It is usually obvious with goal related problems, such as obtaining a bachelor's degree. However, it is very often not obvious when you are dealing with an adverse problem, such as repairing an automobile, breaking a bad habit, treating a medical condition. In such situations, it is necessary to test, and very often retest a number of times. Often, problems appear to be solved, such as breaking a bad habit, but the solution is only temporary, and the problem returns at a later point in time.

Subtopic: There are Many Ways of Delineating Goals

There are a number of ways of defining and setting goals. The simplest and most commonly used strategy: is to delineate a reasonably precise objective and then, carryout the actions needed to obtain the goal. This can also involve time limits, such as I plan to lose 20 lbs, over the next six months. This is of course commonsense, but it is quite useful when you have complete control over a situation, and you know how to obtain a specific goal. This commonsense idea is often a good goal setting strategy, when you are faced with a problem that you are knowledgeable about, and have experience solving.

There are many types of problems and goals that involve a considerable degree of uncertainty. We are not always sure that we can reach our objectives. This is especially the case for most difficult goals, and unusual problems that are complicated. The situation can be even more complicated by the fact that the attainments of certain types of goals are determined by the perceptions and evaluations of others. For example, when trying to find employment, the potential employer determines whether or not we get the job.

When dealing with goals that involve uncertainty, the common sense concept of setting goals can lead to frustration and failure. In the following subtopics there are goal setting strategies that are appropriate for dealing with objectives that involve a considerable degree of uncertainty.

Subtopic: Setting a Series of Easy Goals, that Progressively Increase Slightly In Difficulty:

Easy-Sequential-Goal-Setting

Setting a series of very simple and easily obtainable goals that will lead you towards a difficult objective is a useful strategy. I am calling this goal setting strategy easy-sequential-goal-setting. A simplified example is presented below:

· If you want to get to the top floor of a skyscraper, by climbing the stairs, and you are not sure of your physical abilities, set a goal of climbing to the first floor. When you get to the first floor, re-evaluate your situation if necessary, and if desirable and feasible set a new goal of getting to the second floor. Repeat the above for each floor until you get to the top of the skyscraper, or until you decide to stop your effort or delineate an alternative goal.

A more complex example of this goal setting strategy is presented below. (This example has some practical utility for starting an exercise program.)

· If you are trying to strengthen your body with physical exercise, such as with walking and jogging, and are not certain of your physical condition, do the following. Estimate the distance that you can easily walk or jog without straining yourself, and then divide this estimate by 1/4. If you can easily walk eight blocks, your goal should be to walk two or more blocks at least three times this week. When this goal is achieved, a new goal that is very easily obtainable is set, such as walking four blocks, or more, at least three times a week. When this is achieved, the next goal might be 6 blocks three times a week. This is repeated week after week. When the distance is two miles, then the speed could be gradually increased, such as walking two miles in 120 minutes or less, three times a week. This could be followed seven days later, by a goal of walking the two miles in 119 minutes or less, three times a week, etc. This could be done until you are jogging or until your maximum physical capability is obtained. (Of course, the numbers used in this example are arbitrary)

With this goal setting strategy (easy-sequential-goal-setting) high levels of achievement can be obtained by completing a large number of very easily obtainable goals. However, eventually there will be some failures, and a point will come where further progress is not feasible. This hopefully would not be discouraging or disappointing, because of the many successful goal attainments that were involved with the process.

Easy-sequential-goal-setting is very useful in many situations. I used physical exercise as an example because it serves as a good illustration. However, this goal setting strategy has many applications that are not related to exercise. A strategy very similar to this is used in progressive desensitizing to alleviate phobias. That is the phobic individual sets a goal that relates to the phobia, with a therapist. For example, a fear of high places, might involve thinking of a moderately high balcony while relaxed. When this can be done in a relaxed state, a new goal is set, such as looking down from a skyscraper, while remaining relaxed. Eventually, the goals would involve real balconies, skyscrapers, and mountaintops.

This goal setting strategy (easy-sequential-goal-setting) is certainly not useful for all situations. It can be counterproductive or useless when you have to present a goal related plan to obtain funding, or for purposes of review by superiors. That is presenting one or more easy goals will probably not convince anyone to provide funding for your project, nor is it likely to be acceptable to superiors in the business world. In such cases, it is necessary to delineate long-term goals that would represent substantial achievements. Of course, it is quite possible to create a plan that encompasses a complex long-term goal, and divide this into many small subgoals. This can also be a useful goal setting strategy, but it is a little different than the easy-sequential-goal-setting, because the ultimate goal is already set in this particular situation.

Very Important Subtopic: A Modification of Easy-Sequential-Goal-Setting and Related Strategies Applied to Adverse-Problems

Adverse problems can sometimes be alleviated by: making many tiny and easily obtainable improvements, over an extended period of time. This could eventually add up to very significant improvements. This strategy is especially useful for adverse problems that do not have an apparent solution, or when a difficulty cannot be totally solved. Sometimes the problem can be alleviated first with this method, and partly or totally solved with other methods at a later point in time. A simple example is a house that is extremely messy, crowded with excess furniture, with overfilled closets and drawers, with valuables and junk scattered throughout the house. This problem could be alleviated by setting two easily obtainable goals each day, such as cleaning out a closet, or throwing out a couple of pieces of junk. The tiny improvements would eventually alleviate the problem, perhaps in a few months to one year. Another example is treating a chronic medical problem, by improving everything that can be improved in the patient's life situation to the maximum feasible level, over a period of time. This would involve improving nutrition, exercise, rehabilitation, medical services, medication, rest, sleep, the patient’s physical and social environment, as well as providing interesting pursuits, and pleasurable activities, etc. Thus, even if the chronic disease cannot be cured, the patient’s life situation will be improved. In general, there are many types of medical conditions that can be alleviated by improving every aspect of the patient’s life to the maximum feasible level, over a period of time.

Of course, if you have the ability to make all, or some, of the needed improvements in an adverse situation in a short period of time, you should certainly do so. The quicker an adverse problem can be alleviated the better. However, when faced with serious adverse problems, people often do not have the money, and physical and emotional energy needed to make quick improvements in their situation. In addition, serious adverse problems often are very complicated, and can involve hundreds of components. Thus, to determine what improves the condition might require a trial and error process, perhaps in relation to hundreds of factors, which may require many months or years.

Subtopic: Setting a Series of Challenging Goals, that Progressively Become More Difficult: Challenging-Sequential-Goal-Setting

I am calling this goal setting strategy Challenging-Sequential-Goal-Setting, and it is somewhat similar to the strategy discussed above (easy-sequential-goal-setting). However, instead of defining a series of easy goals, a series of increasingly challenging short-term goals or subgoals are defined, with Challenging-Sequential-Goal-Setting. In addition, a long-term goal might also be defined that relates to the challenging subgoals.

The purpose of challenging-Sequential-Goal-Setting is to motivate a high degree of effort, to make the maximum feasible progress, in the shortest possible time. This goal setting strategy is for situations where you are sure of your ability, and/or where failure has little or no consequence. This is important, because the failure rate is likely to be quite high when a series of truly challenging goals or subgoals are set. This could result in failure rates ranging from 10% to 99.5 %, depending on how challenging the goal or subgoal is. This goal setting strategy is especially useful with any type of practice.

This goal setting strategy (challenging-Sequential-Goal-Setting) can involve setting very challenging goals, and making repeated efforts to obtain them. This might result in a large number of trials and failures, before the goal is obtain. For example, an athlete can increase his running speed, by setting a very challenging goal, and continuously practicing over a period of weeks until the goal is obtained. When the goal is obtained, another very challenging goal can be set, which may require many weeks of practice to obtain. However, the idea is that each practice session involves an attempt to obtain the goal, which will usually result in failure, but eventually the effort will probably result in success.

A less challenging version of this goal setting strategy, could involve goals or subgoals that are usually obtainable at the peak performance of 60% of the practice sessions. Goals and subgoals that are obtainable 40% to 70% of the time might be the optimum for most purposes, when the rate of progress is important, and when failure has no consequence.

This goal setting strategy, (challenging-sequential-goal-setting) can also involve goal setting that is more easily obtainable than indicated above. This is necessary, when excessively challenging goals can have adverse consequences. For example, when challenging-sequential-goal-setting is applied to certain activities, such as physical exercise, caution is required, because this goal setting strategy force a person to the limits of their abilities.

Subtopic: Triple-Goal-Setting, Involves Setting Three Goals or Subgoals, Easy, Moderate, and Difficult

Triple-goal-setting is my terminology for a goal setting strategy that involves setting three goals or subgoals, which are easy, moderate, and difficult. The three goals or subgoals relate to the same situation or problem. Easy means here obtainable more than 90% of the time, moderate means obtainable 65% to 90% of the times, difficult means obtainable less than 65% of the time. For example, a jogger might set three goals for running three miles, such as completing the three mile run in 35 minutes (easy), in 30 minutes (moderate), 25 minutes (difficult). The idea with this strategy is to try to obtain the difficult goal or subgoal, but most of the time the moderate or easy goal or subgoal will be obtained. Trying to obtain the difficult objective is likely to result in a maximum effort, and improve the quality of practice, but most of the time the moderate or easy objective will be obtained.

Subtopic: Limited Goal Setting Strategy: Setting Goals or Subgoals With Defined Limits

Sometimes we want to obtain goals or subgoals without exceeding certain limits. For example, we might want to lose two pounds of excess fat per week, for the next five months. However, we may not want to lose more than two pounds per week, because of potential health problems. Thus, the limited subgoal in this regard would be approximately two pounds a week, no more and no less. When this strategy is employed, the results generally should be monitored and corrected according to the goal that was set. Returning to the above example will clarify this. If the weight loss is proceeding faster than two pounds per week, calories should be slightly increased to reduce the rate of weight loss. If the weight loss is slower than two pounds per week, the calorie intake should be reduced to level that is sufficient for a two pound per week weight loss.

Another example where this goal setting strategy can sometimes be useful is with physical exercise programs. For example, a jogger might want to pace himself at an optimum level for his physical condition, such as running three miles in 35 minutes, with a leeway of plus or minus one minute. This can also involve setting increasingly more difficult goals or subgoals with limits, such as reducing the time needed to run the three miles by one minute each week.

In general, there are many situations where excessive effort or overachievement can be very counterproductive, even if the goals are obtain. Excessively difficult goals or subgoals can result in frustration, disappointment, and failure. Trying to hard to obtain a goal, often results in wasted effort, and/or failure, even when the goal is not excessively difficult. Using the limited goal setting strategy can reduce or eliminate these problems in many situations. Basically with this strategy you define realistic limits with your goals and subgoals, which can be gradually increased in difficulty, when the goals or subgoals are obtained.

The point here is that this goal setting strategy has very wide application that goes far beyond the two examples mentioned above. However, this strategy is not appropriate when it truly limits the level of success and achievement. Often the optimum strategy is to make the most progress in the shortest possible time. In general, it is important to understand the situation that you are dealing with, and to engage in trial and error or experimentation to determine what the optimum goal setting strategy is.

Non-goal-setting strategy

Not setting any goals is sometimes a good idea, which I am calling the Non-goal-setting. The non-goal-setting strategy is useful, when you are dealing with confusing or uncertain situations. When you do not know what is feasible or unfeasible. When, you do not have enough information or experience needed to set specific types of goals. Instead of setting goals in such situations, often the best strategy is to experience the situation, and learn about possible opportunities, and potential problems. Talking to other people about their goals might also be helpful. A good strategy is to simply do your very best, until you have the information needed to set goals.

Experimental-Goals

There are many situations where it is advantageous to set some experimental goals. What I mean by experimental goals is goals based on various types of experiments, especially to obtain information, such as to find out what is feasible and what is not feasible in the situation. When dealing with uncertainty, it is often a good idea to set experimental goals.

Tentative-Goals

There are circumstances where tentative goal setting is the best option. I am defining Tentative-goals for this book as goals that are not clearly defined, and/or do not represent plans or objectives that are certain. Tentative goals can be useful in many situations, especially when there is a considerable degree of uncertainty involved. When the situation becomes clarified, the tentative goals can be discarded, or modified into precise goals.

A Very Important Subtopic: A Rewarding Itinerary

What I mean by a rewarding itinerary is a plan that is focused on obtaining a primary goal, and other goals, rewards and opportunities in addition to the primary goal. Thus, with this strategy, even if you do not obtain your primary goal, you will still probably obtain some successful and very rewarding results. Where this strategy is appropriately employed the plan that results is essentially fail safe. That is a rewarding itinerary is a plan that is designed to provide a number of rewarding subgoals, opportunities, pleasurable experiences, and/or alternative goals, as well as a good chance of obtaining a primary goal. The following hypothetical example will clarify this.

If your goal is a cross-country car trip to The City of Paradise, a rewarding itinerary would be a plan that involves stops at many interesting and pleasurable locations along the route. The itinerary may not be the shortest route to The City of Paradise, but it should be the most rewarding itinerary possible. The itinerary should pass through many desirable localities that offer many opportunities, and interesting and pleasurable experiences. The itinerary of course should ultimately lead to The City of Paradise. However, the idea is if you never get to Paradise, you will still have a very rewarding itinerary. The rewards from the itinerary may be more important in your life than your original goal of getting to The City of Paradise.

The important idea here is: the efforts to reach certain difficult goals can provide many rewards, achievements, and pleasures, even if the goal itself is never obtained. For example, an individual trying to become an Olympic athlete, might develop a strong body, good health, good looks, many friends, a knowledge of nutrition and exercise, as well as the chance to compete and possibly win many amateur athletic events that are less challenging than the Olympics. All of this can lead to many opportunities in life, including employment opportunities. Thus, even if the individual fails and never becomes an Olympic athlete, the very effort to achieve this unobtainable goal can provide very great rewards.

In general, a rewarding itinerary should be incorporated into most long-term plans that are focused on a primary goal, especially when there is some degree of uncertainty involved in goal attainment. This can be achieved by broadening of the plans so they encompass additional desirable: opportunities, subgoals, and alternative goals in case the primary goal cannot be obtained.

A rewarding itinerary does not mean that you are abandoning your primary goal. The itinerary can include a maximum effort to obtain your primary goal, but involves other benefits, especially rewards associated with the goal attainment effort. Another example will help clarify this. If someone wants to become a great dancer, they can go to college and study dancing with the aim of becoming a dance instructor, a choreographer, as well as a dancer. Even if the original goal was never obtained, there would be substantial rewards from the effort. This could also include performances as a dancer but not necessarily a great dancer. Thus even if the individual is never recognized as a great dancer, they still might have a very rewarding career that involves dancing, such as teaching dancing and/or choreography, or working as a choreographer.

Thus, the important idea here is: you are likely to succeed, at least to some degree, with a rewarding itinerary, even if you fail to obtain your primary goal.

Subtopic: the Goal Setting Strategy to Avoid: Make it or Bust

A common goal setting strategy that many people inadvertently employ involves considerable risk and serious consequences if they fail. I am calling this self-destructive strategy the make-it-or-bust. When this strategy is employed, it usually involves bad judgment, lack of relevant information, and a reluctance to consider the risks and adverse consequences that could result from failure. Usually, the individual is extremely determined to succeed, and does not want to consider the possibility of failure. A good example of the make it or bust strategy is often seen when an individual attempts to start a small or medium-size business, especially without the needed knowledge and experience. This can involve borrowing large sums of money from family, friends and the bank, without considering how the money would be paid back if the business fails.

Generally, the make-it-or-bust strategy involves far more than an investment in money. It usually includes a considerable investment in time, effort and emotional involvement. However, in spite of the determination to succeed, usually the individual does not invest time and effort to obtain and study the information needed to succeed. All of this usually leads to failure. When the failure comes, it often starts a chain reaction of problems. This can include financial problems, conflict with family members over money, depression, divorce, as well as physical illness precipitated by the stress.

Keep in mind that the make-it-or-bust, does not only occur with business related goals. It can involve almost any type of difficult goal, when there are unwarranted expectations of success, with an unreasonably high investment in money and/or effort, without a backup plan to deal with the possibility of failure.

The idea here is to check your plans, goals and dreams and make sure that you are not using the make-it-or-bust strategy. If you think you are inadvertently employing the make it or bust strategy, you can stop this self-destructive path by doing all of the following:

· Convert your goal, and related plans, into a rewarding itinerary, as explained above.

· Try to rework your goal and related plans, to reduce adverse consequences if you fail. Ask yourself: what will happen if I fail? If the answer is disastrous, you have considerable work to do on your goal and plans. A good goal related plan should allow for multiple attempts at success, even if there are some initial failures.

· Try to reduce any excessive expenditure in time, money, and effort. It is difficult to determine what excessive expenditures are, because many sensible goals and plans do involve a tremendous investment in time, money and effort, such as education. If your investment will be totally wasted if you fail then it might be excessive. If this is not the case, then it probably is not excessive. For example, if an individual goes to college with the goal of becoming a physician, and fails to get into medical school, the college education is certainly not wasted.

· Learn about your goal, and what you must do to succeed. This can involve Internet research, reading books, and returning to school for formal studies.

· Obtain, free or low-cost, help from experts and other individuals in relation to your goal.

Subtopic: The Just-Do-It-Strategy

There is a simple goal setting strategy that sometimes is very functional and other times quite dysfunctional, which I am calling the just-do-it-strategy. You can see many variations of this strategy, in motivational books, and perhaps also by observing your friends and your own behavior. It is sometimes carried out intentionally and at other times inadvertently. The assumption behind this strategy is that you can really do it, without any excessive complexity, if you make up your mind, and put all your effort into it, and just try. Obviously, the words do it means: start your efforts to obtain your goal, without delay, and without any excess planning, evaluations, precautions, etc. There are obviously, many goals that we can in fact obtain, if we just get started, and take the actions needed to successfully obtain the goal. Thus, just-do-it strategy is useful in circumventing procrastination, especially when you are dealing with an undesirable task, such as a major housecleaning task involving all the closets, draws and the garage. With many relatively simple goals this strategy is likely to work for many people.

Even with some moderately complex goals, the just-do-it strategy may produce successful results, because even if you encounter unanticipated problems, once you get started, you can probably figure out a way of circumventing any difficulties you encounter. Getting started is sometimes the most difficult challenge, which can be associated with anxiety, uncertainty and excessive concerns about difficulties and possible failures. Once you get started, and start serious work on the problem or the goal, you will have better insight, and you can always make improvements in your plans, including modifications in the goal itself. You can use the just-do- it-strategy as a starting point, and eventually modify your plans and apply other goal setting strategies and methods as you progress. If the goal turns out to be excessively difficult, you can convert your plans into a rewarding itinerary.

The problem with the just-do-it-strategy is that most goals turn out to be far more difficult than we expected. And, when we just-do-it, we just fail and get discouraged. The just-do-it-strategy can be very dysfunctional when failing has significant consequences. For example, if we apply the just-do-it-strategy to a goal of returning to school to obtain a college degree, when we are not academically prepared, and/or when we have excessive family obligations, it could lead to failure, and the loss of thousands of dollars. This can also result in adverse emotional and social difficulties, especially in a family situation. Another example where the just-do-it-strategy can lead to disaster is in starting a business, when there is a significant financial investment. In many situations, especially in the case of starting a business the just-do-it-strategy, can lead to the make-it-or-bust strategy, which eventually leads to severe consequences involving financial losses, and failures.

The just-do-it strategy is functional when failure has little or no consequence. There are situations where we can fail many times before we succeed, without any financial losses or any other harmful results. In such situations, the just-do-it strategy, is a good strategy to employ. There are also situations where, we are justified in believing that we will almost certainly succeed, which can be the result of prior successful experiences. This is another situation where we can possibly employ the just-do-it strategy, but with caution, because reality usually turns out to be more difficult than we anticipate. The just-do-it strategy can be useful to start the initial efforts with a challenging goal, if the consequences of failures can be eliminated. For example, if the goal is to start a business, it is sometimes possible to set up a preliminary or experimental business, from home, and/or on the Internet with little or no investment. If this is done in an optimal way, repeated failures will have little adverse consequence, and it will allow for an ongoing effort of trial and error, and learning, until success is obtained. When a business is started in this way, it can sometimes also be a hobby, and if it turns out to be an unsuccessful business, it might turn out to be a highly successful hobby. Another example in this regard, is starting college. If you are not sure that you are ready to start college, but you want to employ the just-do-it strategy, try to take one or two courses, on a noncredit basis. If you are doing well, you might be able to convert it to a credit course in some cases. On the other hand, if you are having difficulty, this will give you an opportunity to evaluate the problems and correct them, and to try again without the adverse consequences of failure. The idea here is, the just-do-it strategy can be used to start the actions needed to obtain a goal, in terms of a feasibility study, or on an experimental basis, and continued until the difficulties can be worked out. This strategy can give you the opportunity to gradually convert your efforts from an experimental basis, to serious efforts to obtain a goal, such as creating a business, or starting college studies.

Subtopic: The Daydreaming Strategy

Many people think about or dream about their goals before they set them, and many of these dreams remain on the fantasy level. This might be carried out partly or totally inadvertently, but it can actually be a highly functional strategy. It can be used to evaluate our desires, and it can serve to eliminate unrealistic or undesirable goals, by keeping them on a fantasy level. The daydream can often lead to very rewarding and informative experiences, regardless of whether or not it is ever actualize as a real world goal. These rewards result from the fact that a daydream requires resources to convert it into a goal, such as information, and the assistance of other people. Often in an effort to obtain resources the individual with the dream will speak to people, which can result in interesting and informative conversations, friendships, job offers, and other benefits. This effort can also lead to the attainment of the actual goal when it is feasible.

The daydreaming strategy can also be dysfunctional under certain conditions. The dysfunctionality is seen when the daydream consumes an excessive amount of time, interferes with obtainable goals, or causes adverse reactions from others, which can happen when the daydream is totally unrealistic. The daydreaming strategy can also be dysfunctional when it leads to an actual attempt to obtain a highly unrealistic goal, especially with the make-it-or-bust strategy mentioned above.

Subtopic: Compensation, A Highly Functional Goal Setting Strategy

I am calling this goal setting strategy, compensation. It is a goal setting strategy that many people employ, consciously, inadvertently, or unconsciously. It involves attainments or efforts to compensate for an adverse event, a disappointment, a major loss of some type, or a failure to obtain a major goal. The simplest example is seen when someone loses a pet, and after a period of adjustment, they purchase a new animal. Another example, is seen with the death of the spouse, where generally after a period of morning, the individual reorganizes his life, and starts to socialize, and dates, with the eventual goal of finding a new spouse. A similar concept might be seen, in children who are faced with a minor disappointment, and they request from their parents candy, ice cream, or a new toy. Sometimes, the parent makes this offer before the child makes any requests, to relieve the stress of a disappointment or failure. The general idea is if you cannot enjoy one thing, whatever it may be, you can obtain pleasure, satisfaction or utility from something else. This is generally a highly functional strategy, with the exceptions explained in the following paragraph.

There are people that compensate for losses, or adverse situations, by getting involved with pleasurable behaviors that are self-destructive. The most obvious example is an alcoholic or drug addict, who is consciously or unconsciously, trying to compensate for adversity, with alcohol or drugs. Excessive cigarette smoking, for some people, may also be a similar type of compensation, for lack of pleasure or for adverse events. Some people that overeat repeatedly might be trying to compensate for lack of pleasurable activities in their lives, and/or because of a number of adverse conditions that they frequently encounter. This need for compensation (by overeating) might be partly related to feelings of inferiority, depression, and physical illness brought on by being overweight, which results in a vicious cycle. This type of vicious cycle, might also apply to the other types of addictive behaviors, including drug addiction and alcoholism.

Very often when people successfully break an addictive habit, (involving illicit drugs, alcohol, overeating, or cigarette smoking) they will experience a strong need for compensation when they are faced with a serious adverse event, such as the loss of a job, a major failure, overwork, the breakup of an intimate relationship, the death of a family member, or any type of adverse emotional stress. This need for compensation often results in a return to their old addictive habits whenever they experience adversity.

The examples given in this subtopic might not apply to all people that are drug addicts, alcoholics, cigarette smokers, or chronically obese, but it probably does apply to at least some individuals in this category. However, whether this theory is generally true or not, may not be very important, because it suggests a practical strategy. This involves encouraging or assisting troubled individuals to fix up every aspect of their lives, and to engage them in healthy pleasurable activities, in such a way that it distracts them from their addicted behaviors. Another important principle that is suggested by the theory presented above is to teach individuals that there need for compensation might increase when they are experiencing adverse life events, especially if they have a history of addictive behaviors. This should include explaining how to obtain and experience healthy forms of compensation.

In general, an understanding of the general concepts explained above, will help you use the compensation strategy, and the other ideas mentioned, in a deliberate and constructive fashion. The idea to keep in mind is that compensation can be a very functional unhealthy strategy. It can sometimes lead to exciting and interesting new plans and goals.

Subtopic: Most of The Goal Setting Strategies Mentioned Above Can Be Used In Various Combinations.

Most of the goal setting strategies discussed above can be used simultaneously, especially with complex long-term goals. The rewarding itinerary strategy is probably the most important goal setting strategy, and it can be incorporated into most long-term problem solving efforts. Triple-goal-setting involving goal setting at an easy, moderate, and difficult level is very useful for most short-term goals, subgoals, as well as some long-term goals. In general, the best goal setting strategies must be determined in each situation. This can involve the trial and error process and some experimentation.

Subtopic: Do Your Goals Represent Your True Desires?

Sometimes it is necessary to determine what we truly desire, before we set goals. It is not uncommon for people to spend years trying to obtain a goal, and when they finally reach their objective, they realize that they set the wrong goal. This is sometimes seen with goals that relate to the conventional concepts of success, such as a high status occupation, and owning a car and a home in suburbia. For some people, these are truly fantastic goals, and when they are obtained, they bring great joy to their lives. However, living without the immediate availability of the facilities of the city, can result in boredom and loneliness for some individuals. Driving to work and home again, from the city, especially during rush-hour, can be frustrating, very time-consuming, and quite dangerous. High status occupations can be interesting, challenging, and pleasurable for some people, but for others it can be boring, unpleasant, very stressful, resulting in physical and psychological disorders.

The point here is to think twice about your long-term goals. It is a good idea to try to experiment, to determine if the goals you set for yourself truly represent your desires. For example, if you want to own your own home in suburbia, try renting a home in suburbia for a couple of months, and see if you enjoy the situation. Determine if you can tolerate the inconvenience, such as driving to work and home again, during the rush-hour. In addition, watch other individuals that are in the situation you will be when you obtain your long-term goals. Talking to such individuals will provide even more information. For example, if you want to become a lawyer, try to observe lawyers in action, and also try to speak to them about their duties and feelings. Trying to image in your mind the way things will be when you obtain your goal can also be helpful. Try to imagine the pleasurable and unpleasurable aspects of your goal. Ask yourself, is this what I want? Does this satisfy my desires? Is there a better long-term goal, something that I will find even more desirable? Is there an alternative goal, without the negative aspects of my current objective?

A problem with long-term goals is they must be set years before they are obtained. People, their circumstances, and their desires can sometimes change very dramatically in a few years. This probably happens more often in childhood and the teenage years, but our desires and interests can change at any age. For example, an occupational objective and related course of study might be very desirable to a teenager entering college, but his interest might change by the time he obtains a bachelor’s degree. In general, what we want now, we may or may not want in the future. This problem can be reduced using the rewarding-itinerary goal setting strategy, and creating long-term plans that lead to many alternative pathways. For example, college and graduate studies can be planned so they are aimed at many occupations, as opposed to a single profession. To do this might require taking a few additional courses.

Topic: Concentrating on Your Goal Attainment Efforts

A common complaint that I frequently hear from people, is the problem of concentration. There has been a considerable amount of discussion about this problem in the press over the last few years, especially in terms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. As a result of this publicity, many people erroneously think they have ADHD. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is a psychological condition involving a serious difficulty in concentrating and controlling behavior, especially in relation to the important activities of life. When psychological pathology is involved the individual may neglect activities that are generally considered essential, and he may focus on less important pursuits, unstructured activities, and/or deviant behaviors.

It is quite normal to have occasional difficulty concentrating when faced with an excessive quantity of distractions and work. Modern life provides an almost limitless number of choices, distractions, tasks, and problems for most people. The only feasible way of dealing with the situation is to make intelligent choices, which most people do quite well. Sometimes this is done unconsciously, where the individual simply cannot concentrate on the less important activities that he is faced with. However, the above does not imply that normal people cannot make improvements in their concentration. In the following paragraphs there is some description of common factors that interfere with concentration, and strategies that can help deal with these distractions. Some of this material relates to time management strategies.

An excessive amount of work can cause problems with concentration by producing fatigue, and/or by overloading our minds (sensory overload). The solution is to prioritize the different tasks that you have to carry out throughout the day. Focus on the most important tasks first. Any task that will be especially difficult or time-consuming for you should ideally be allocated to someone else, if feasible. Tasks that are time-consuming and routine can often be done by assistants. In addition, excessive work can sometimes be reduced by devising various methods of doing the work quicker and more efficiently. This can sometimes involve simple common sense strategies, special techniques, and/or various types of technology. The application of appropriate technology can often save a considerable amount of time and effort. However, technology can have the opposite effect if you obtain inappropriate equipment, or fail to learn how to use it efficiently.

An excessive quantity of recreational activities can produce similar effects as overwork. Some recreational activities can be just as important as work, because it can provide physical exercise for some of us, and many of us meet our mates doing activities that are classified as recreation, such as going to parties. The best strategy to deal with excessive recreational activities is somewhat similar to the problem of excess work. The basic idea is to prioritize, and focus on the activities that are most pleasurable and/or important in your life. This can involve assessments based on the relative degree of importance that the activity will have on your life in the future, such as the next ten years. For example, if you go to many parties, and are single, this might be an important activity for you, if you are trying to find a mate, which will probably have a significant impact on your future. On the other hand, if you are married, the parties might not have an impact on your future, and you may want to eliminate or reduce the time you spend in this regard.

Distracting environmental factors interfering with concentration is not unusual, especially in the city. This can involve noise, people talking to you while you are working, or being interrupted by phone calls. Problems of this nature require careful thinking and evaluation, in each individual case. You have to figure out ways of reducing these distractions in your personal situation, but you should do this carefully, because if it is done improperly, it may cause conflict with other people, which can be far more time-consuming and distracting then the problem you now have.

One of the simplest ways of reducing distractions from phone calls is obviously to use an answering machine, especially with the telephone bell turned off. Another simple way of reducing distractions is to close the door of your office, perhaps with a do not disturb sign on the door. Another alternative is to complete your work in an unknown location, such as a different office located in your workplace, or in the library.

Our own disturbing thoughts can sometimes be quite distracting. That is at times most of us can be distracted by our own thought processes, especially when we are faced with an adverse situation. Disturbing thoughts can sometimes emerge as a result of a hostile remark that somebody hurled at us. When the distracting thoughts are the result of a minor situation briefly talking the problem over with your self can be helpful. This can involve a quick evaluation of the true significance of a hostile remark. Usually, hostile remarks are the result of someone else's frustration or anger, and reminding yourself of this can be helpful, when distracted by a ridiculing statement. This can involve telling yourself: this is garbage, every time you are faced with distracting thoughts of this nature. In the event, the ridiculing statement truly represents a personal weakness, such as your boss criticizing the quality of your work, you can use the words, I will work on this problem, and make improvements, but I am doing something else right now. Then try to continue with the activities that you are involved with.

Distracting thoughts can of course be the result of more serious situations that people face in life, such as financial difficulties, family conflict, or the illness or death of a loved one. Physical illness, especially if it involves pain or discomfort, can also be distracting. Even a common cold can cause a considerable amount of distraction, and a very significant reduction in the efficiency and quality of our work. In such cases, you can try to assess the situation in a realistic way, such as telling yourself you must accept the reality, and you can go on living, but this might not help very much. Often people simply need time to adjust and accept the adversities of life. This time can be used most constructively, when it involves efforts at readjusting, and rectifying, to the maximum feasible level, the adverse situation. For example, financial problems can often be reduced or corrected by careful thinking, a budget, an additional job, etc. Family conflict, can also be reduced, or eliminated with various modifications and adjustments. This can involve of course professional assistance.

The important idea to understand is: when you are distracted excessively by a minor situation, such as a nasty remark, your thought processes are (in a certain sense) malfunctioning. However, when you are distracted by repeated negative thoughts involving a serious situation that recently occurred, your thought processes are not malfunctioning. Your mind is simply telling you that you are concentrating your efforts on the wrong thing, and you should try to work on the adverse situation you are confronted with. Doing so, will probably make you feel better, even if it just involves the process of thinking things over, and adjusting. However, trying to make actual improvements or compensations for losses will probably be the optimum strategy.

When faced with distractions that are the result of serious adverse conditions, a good strategy is to focus on the most important activities, and to avoid any time-consuming tasks that are not very important. Another useful strategy is to avoid activities that involve risks, because accidents are more likely to happen when faced with serious distractions. Activities that are normally not considered particularly hazardous, such as driving a car, operating electronic machinery, walking on slippery streets, etc, should be avoided. When engaging in any activities, when faced with distracting adversity, you should be extra cautious, and do things with more care and at a slower pace.

Distracting thoughts can also develop from pleasant situations, such as the anticipation of an exciting vacation, a new job, a marriage, etc. Many of the same strategies suggested for adverse situations, can be useful for pleasant situations that are distracting.

Concentration difficulties can also result when, we must carry out certain unpleasant activities. Many of us do not like paperwork, housekeeping, and many other activities that are required in our modern world. One of the best ways of dealing with this is to figure out away of making unpleasant activities as pleasant and interesting as possible. Try to eliminate the unpleasant components involved with the activity. For example, any activity that involve excessive amounts of time sitting, can result in discomfort associated with lack of body movements, which can be remedied by standing up and moving about the room every hour or so. Many activities can become more interesting if you make a competitive game out of it. For example, if you have to do housecleaning, and you have other family members helping you, you can have a race to see who cleans more. If you are doing tasks alone, you can set a time related, goal, such as completing the task, in an hour or two, or whatever is feasible.

Another useful strategy, which is discussed elsewhere in this book, involves your focus. If you are experiencing unpleasant body sensations, and you focus your thoughts on this discomfort, your work will become more difficult and it will also be much harder to concentrate on what you're doing. When you concentrate on discomfort you become more aware of it. The best strategy is to focus your attention on the work you are trying to complete, because that will reduce your awareness of the unpleasant body sensations.

Anxiety and other adverse emotional reactions can also interfere with concentration. The solution is to try to reduce the adverse emotional reactions, to the maximum feasible level. Sometimes, developing insight about the situation you are dealing with can be very helpful. This can sometimes be done by careful thinking and evaluation of your situation. Learning relaxation techniques and hypnosis and applying them when you are experiencing anxiety or other adverse emotional responses can be helpful. Most of this can also be done with a psychotherapist, especially if he is trained in cognitive therapy, relaxation techniques and hypnosis. However, many people use tranquilizes and related medication to deal with problems of this nature, but this might be quite unnecessary and destructive, except perhaps for very serious conditions. The idea to understand, most people occasionally experience relatively high levels of anxiety, especially when they are young. The anxiety that people often experience appears to be directly related to the challenges and the risks that they are confronted with at various points throughout their lives.

All of the above of course, must involve careful thinking, experimentation, and the trial and error process to obtain successful results.

Topic: What are the Major Causes of Goal Attainment Failures?

Of course there are many reasons why individuals, organizations and governments fail in problem solving efforts.

However, based on my observations, there are four difficulties that cause much of the failure, which are limitations of financial resources, ineffective strategies of self-control, a failure to vary efforts adequately in a trial and error process, inadequate information to solve the problem. These difficulties are discussed in the following four subtopics.

Subtopic: limitations of Financial Resources

The problem solving process can be quite expensive, because it often requires professional services, equipment, and materials. In addition, it is often difficult to make accurate estimates of the cost of obtaining a goal, as a result of the complexities involved. There are a number of ways of dealing with this difficulty discussed in the following paragraphs.

Financial difficulties, in relation to problem solving, were already discussed, from a different perspective. However, the information that was previously provided applies here also, which included searching the Internet for government and private grants, and loans that relate to the specific problem.

The cost of problem solving can sometimes be reduced by applying a number of cost reduction strategies. The first is to try to reduce the need for professional services that you must pay for. With personal problems, there is very often free professional assistance available, which depends on the nature of the problem and related circumstances. This often applies to varying degrees with medical problems and educational goals. The need for professional services can sometimes be reduced by developing the knowledge and skills needed to perform tasks without professional assistance. Such knowledge will also help in making cost effective decisions in relation to professional services.

Sometimes extending a problem solving effort over a longer period of time than originally planned can make it more obtainable from a financial perspective. For example, if you are trying to complete college in four years, and are having financial difficulties, extending it to six or more years might eliminate the difficulties. Extending the time period of this goal reduces the yearly costs and also allows time for employment. However, there are situations where extending the time to obtain a goal increases expenses. We can use the same example of college to illustrate this. If extending college studies, also results in remaining unemployed for a longer period, then it will probably be more of a financial problem. In such a case, studying during the summer months, and taking additional courses to complete college in less time may be the most economical strategy.

Asking your self the right questions can sometimes reduced costs. With anything that involves money, ask yourself do I really need this equipment, material, or services. Can I find a better price for this item? What would be the consequences if I did not make this purchase? What are the alternatives to this purchase? What are all the ways that I can cut costs? And then make a list of all the possibilities.

When you are trying to reduce costs you should focus on items that can result in significant savings. For example, if you are spending a considerable amount of money on professional services, transportation involving air travel, rent, new computer equipment, or other expensive items, you can probably reduce by selecting less expensive alternatives. For example, instead of traveling by plane, use a bus or train, if it is less expensive, but keep in mind that sometimes the plane is cheaper. Also a reduction of the amount of such expenditures can often be feasible, such as traveling less often. Costs can also be reduced by using less expensive alternatives, such as using telecommunication, e-mail, conventional mail instead of traveling to specific locations.

When cutting costs a common dysfunctional strategy is to focus on inexpensive items that do not result in significant savings. For example, cutting on the use of electricity or paper, usually results in great inconvenience, the wasting of time and effort, and little or no savings. Generally, the loss of efficiency by cutting on such items will in the long run increase costs significantly. There are exceptions to this of course. For example, if you are operating an aluminum processing plant, or are very poor, the cost of electricity will represent a major percentage of your yearly budget.

In general, the best way to determine what is a significant expenditure or savings is to think in terms of percent of budget. That is, do not focus on the price in dollars; instead focus on the percent of the month's budget and/or year’s budget. For example, if the cost of electricity represents 50 percent of the monthly budget, such as might be the case with an aluminum processing plant, reducing it by 10 % will result in a 5 % reduction in cost. This is small, but it is still quite significant. However, if your average electric bill represents 5 % of your yearly income after taxes, a 10% reduction in electricity would be 0.5 % of your budget. This is not a significant savings of money, and it will probably cost far more than it saves in the long run because of loss of efficiency, and other difficulties. However, there are situations where tiny savings of this nature do not represent any sacrifice, and thus it may be a very sensible cost reduction. For example, turning out lights and using smaller light bulbs may result in a tiny savings, and significantly increase costs as a result of accidents and loss of efficiency. However, using high-efficiency light bulbs to cut on electric costs would probably be quite sensible, because there is no inconvenience, and they can provide more light at a low cost, and they do not have to be replaced as often. This case, you are saving a little money, and it and avoiding the inconvenience of changing light bulbs.

Mathematically the percent of budget that an item costs can be determined by multiplying the cost of the item by 100, and dividing by the total budget.

Subtopic: Ineffective Strategies of Self-control

To obtain most goals requires a considerable amount of willpower and self-discipline. The lack of self-control is a major cause of goal attainment failure. The best strategy to deal with this difficulty is to reduce the need for self-control, to the greatest possible degree. This applies to personal goals, as well as the goals of business, organizations and government. This raises the question how can we reduced the need for self-control? This is explained in the following paragraphs.

The need for self-control, including self-discipline and willpower, generally involve two factors. Self-control is needed to tolerate uncomfortable conditions. For example, a weight reduction program can result in discomfort from hunger. Self-control is also needed to deal with temptation, or the desire to do something that is pleasant or rewarding but dysfunctional. For example, being tempted to eat a high calorie dessert while on a diet.

Thus, the need for Self-control can be reduced by eliminating uncomfortable conditions. This means that circumstances surrounding a problem-solving effort should be made as pleasant and comfortable as possible. Many of the factors that make something pleasant or unpleasant are subjective, and the individual has to work out the optimum working conditions, based on experimentation and trial and error. The question to ask your self is what makes this work uncomfortable? If I alternate it with other activities will it be more pleasant? If I do it for a shorter time interval would it be less unpleasant, or more pleasant? If I do this task alone would it be more pleasant, or if I do it with people would it be more pleasant?

There are many reasons why various task cause discomfort. However, one of the major reasons is the length of time the task is performed. For example, many people enjoy sitting and reading or working on the computer, but this can become very uncomfortable when it has to be done for eight hours a day. This difficulty can be eliminated by planning multiple activities that affect the mind and body in different ways. This can involves alternating the task that involves sitting and writing, with the task that involves interviewing and sitting, followed by a task that involves standing, etc.

Tasks associated with problem solving, can sometimes be made more pleasant by controlling your focus of attention. If you focus your thoughts on your discomfort, you will probably feel more uncomfortable in most cases. For example, if your goal is weight reduction, you will feel more uncomfortable if you focus your attention on your hunger. However, if you focus your attention on something else, you will feel more comfortable, which ideally should involve a pleasant activity.

Now I will discuss the second factor involving self-control, which is dealing with temptation. The best way to deal with this is to try to remove anything that is likely to motivate counterproductive behavior. The simplest example is a person that is trying to lose weight, should not store high calorie foods, such as cakes and pies in his home, because he may be tempted to eat it. From the perspective of industry, the temptation to leave the job early can be eliminated with a time clock. The general idea here is any counterproductive behavior that you are concerned about, should be made very difficult or impossible to engage in. For example, if you do not want a child to go into the cookie jar, or play with household chemicals, you can do and one or of the following:

· You can set clear rules, and with punishment if the rules are violated. This strategy will probably result in occasional violations, and the punishment is likely to be disruptive to the entire household.

· You can try to lecture and explain why the cookie jar or chemicals should not be touched. This would probably also result in periodic violations, and probably a number of angry lectures inflicted on the child. This would also probably disrupt the entire household.

· You can make the cookie jar or household chemicals inaccessible, such as on a very high shelf, with a lock if necessary. This strategy is they’ll say. Violations are impossible. However, one of the main advantage is it will not disrupt the household, because there will be no punishments, angry lectures or arguments.

I used a child in the above example, but it is important to understand that the above represents an important general principle, that has wide application. In the case of controlling yourself, the idea is to make any type of undesirable temptation, such as an excessively high calorie dessert, inaccessible. The above concept can also be applied to problems of organizational and governmental security. That is, if you do not want something to be done, make it impossible so it cannot be done.

Subtopic: A Failure to Vary Efforts Adequately in a Trial and Error process

With difficult problems, there are often failures, and a trial and error process is often required, to prevent failures. This is even the case with some simple problems. The trial and error process involves making a number of variations in techniques and strategies in an effort to successfully obtain a goal. For example, a person trying to learn how to hit the center of a target by throwing darts will try many different hand movements, until he succeeds. Another example is a student trying to master a difficult subject. He may try one study technique, and then another technique, and make variations in the techniques, until he is able to understand and retained the material. All of this of course, usually involves a considerable amount of knowledge on how to perform the tasks needed to obtain a goal. That is the trial and error process is generally used with information and other techniques that relate to a goal.

When there is no success in obtaining a goal, with the information, methods and strategies that you are using, the idea is to try first small variations with the trial and error process. Most people do this without even thinking about it, at least with certain types of problems. If this does not work, most people will probably give up, and consider the goal to difficult to obtain. However, continuing the trial and error process, and making larger variations in methods and strategies, including the application of new techniques, can sometimes result in success. The idea is to try one method, make variations in the method, and then perhaps makes still larger variations. If this does not result in success, try additional methods, etc, and continue with the trial and error process. This can also involve application of new strategies, equipment and tools, as well as a new group of experts and technicians. These types of large variations are a major part of the trial and error process, which is extremely important, if initial efforts are not producing an adequate level of success.

Subtopic: Inadequate Information to Obtain the Solution or Goal

If you do not have adequate information to solve a problem, you can of course do research; engage in formal studies to obtain the information, or hire professionals to assist you in your goal. However, sometimes there is inadequate information available to solve a problem. For example, nobody has figured out a way of curing cancer, or making space travel economical, in spite of considerable experimental research. With these problems, and many other problems and goals, the needed information simply does not exist at this point in time.

When the information needed to solve a problem does not exist, it is sometimes possible to obtain a solution, with the trial and error process. Alternatively, a partial solutions, or an alternative goal may also be obtainable, with the trial and error process. If it is an adverse problem, improving everything that relates to the problem, can sometimes make the difficulty less severe.

However, very often the information needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal exists, but the problem solver is lacking this information, or he may not know how to apply the information to obtain the solution or goal. A related concept that is often significant consists of: a misunderstanding of the available information, or a misunderstanding of how to apply the information.

If you are having difficulty solving the problem or obtaining your goal, and you are not absolutely sure of the cause, consider all of the above possibilities. Then do some research, and consult experts for assistance to see if you can obtain the solution, goal, or good alternative.

Section-4 Problem-Solving the Theoretical and Practical Perspective

Topic: A Theoretical Perspective on a General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior

Subtopic Introduction To the General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior

There are many theoretical models of human and animal behavior in the psychological literature. Some examples are behaviorism, learning theory, exchange theory, and many others. (For more information do Internet searches with http://www.yahoo.com,

Google http://www.google

and Google Scholar http://www.google.com/scholar for Theories of human behavior. ) Most of these theories look at human and animal behavior from a specific perspective, and in this sense none of them are either right or wrong. They all look at behavior from a different angle, and create concepts based on what is seen from that angle. Of course, such theoretical models provide varying degrees of theoretical and practical utility. In general, the utility of these models depends on the specific situation that they are applied to.

The main objective of this book is the presentation of a methodology that can be used to solve difficult problems. However, as you read through this text it will become apparent that a theoretical model of behavior is suggested by the many techniques and concepts presented in this book. This topic provides a theoretical background that relates to the material in this book. However, most of the theoretical material is in a separate section: Theoretical Perspectives, which is essentially an extension of the material that is presented here. Specifically, the model that is presented below will be extended to a more technical and general model that applies to the behavior of all types of systems, including living, nonliving and evolutionary systems in the later section of this book. The theoretical concept that I am presenting first is easier to understand, has practical applications for common problems, and should facilitate comprehension of all the material presented in this book.

The model that I am presenting is based on the following idea: Just about all human and animal behavior can be conceptualized in terms of problem-solving behavior. This simply means that behavior can be studied from the perspective of problem solving, which includes efforts, methods and strategies to obtain goals. This represents another theoretical model of behavior that will be applied to psychological and social phenomenon in this section. I will call this model the general model of problem-solving behavior. This model deals with the internal and external behavior of animals, people, groups, organizations, governments, and cultures. It is explained in the following paragraphs, starting with some very simple commonsense ideas, and preceding to more complex concepts, which have both practical and theoretical value.

All, or almost all, behavior can be broken down into various actions that relate to an attempt to obtain a goal, or can be conceptualized in such terms. The following will help clarify this idea:

1) A situation results in a problem (it’s raining and I am getting wet)

2) The solution is defined, which is the goal (obtain shelter from the rain).

3) The behavioral sequence represents the problem solving effort (searching for shelter).

4) When the goal is obtained, the problem is solved (found shelter from the rain)

The four steps shown above can be used to represent many types of simple problems, such as: getting caught in a snowstorm, having to go to the bathroom while on a city bus, turning on the television set to watch your favorite program, responding to a ringing telephone. However, most people would not consider a ringing phone or turning on a television to be a problem, but as stated earlier, anything that involves a goal is considered a problem based on the general definition I’m using. (Note, in this topic I am using the terminology problem solving behavior, to apply to just about all the actions and behavior patterns that people exhibit, as well as all the tasks that people perform. If this is not kept in mind, this topic will be confusing.) Generally, all simple actions that are carried out for some purpose involve the four steps shown above, including some type of simple goal. Some additional examples are as follows:

· (1-problemà) The ring of a doorbell initiates (2-problem solving effortà) an action sequence to (3-goalà) find out who is ringing the bell. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà)Found out who was at the door, door-to-door salesman the problem is solved.

· (1-problemà)New problem from the above, how do I get rid of the door to door salesman? (2-problem solving effortà) Oh, I will tell him that we are not interested, without opening the door: WE ARE NOT INTERESTED, NOT INTERESTED. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà) The salesman left, the problem is solved.

· (1-problemà) A baby feels uncomfortable, and he may not even fully understand why he feels uncomfortable, but he consciously or unconsciously solves his problem by (2-problem solving effortà) crying, which alerts the parents to (3-goalà) change his diapers. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà)The problem solved, the diapers are changed, and the baby feels comfortable.

· (1-problemà) Hungry cat, in an attempt to obtain (2-goalà) food, (3-problem solving effortà) meows repeatedly to its master, until he is given food. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà) The cat is fed and the problem is solved.

It is possible to put more complex problems in this four step format. However, this generally will not help you solve them, unless the four steps are expanded to reveal all of the major steps that are needed to solve the problem. Complex problems can sometimes be represented by 10 to 100 major steps, but generally they involve over one thousand steps to solve. This becomes obvious if you evaluate the number of steps for various personal goals, such as obtaining a bachelor’s degree. It is even more obvious if you evaluate industrial goals, such as engineering new automobiles, building factories, and constructing electric power stations.

The following three examples involve complex problems, represented in a four step format, involving a hypothetical individual, a company, and a nation.

· (1-problemà) An individual wants to attend college to obtain a (2-goalà) bachelor’s degree (3-problem solving effortà) so he registers for college, and begins his studies. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà) The solution to the problem will be the attainment of a bachelor’s degree.

· (1-problemà) A large manufacturing company wants to (2-goalà) increase profits, (3-problem solving effortà) so their engineering team works out ways of cutting production costs, and the sales department raises the price of the product by 10%. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà) The profits of the company are significantly higher six months later, and the problem is solved.

· A nation (1-problemà) wants to (2-goalà) raise its gross national product by 10 % in two years, (3-problem solving effortà) so they offer manufacturing companies and farms a 50 % rebate on all machinery that his purchase to increase production. (4-The solution or attainment of the goalà)The gross national product of the nation is increased by 10% in two years, and thus the problem is solved.

As you read through this book it will become apparent that just about all human and animal behavior can be conceptualized in terms of problem-solving, involving an effort to obtain a solution or goal. That is all, or almost all, behavior can be delineated in terms of an attempt to obtain some type of goal, as previously indicated. The goal can be very simple, such as to remove a strand of hair from the eye, or very complex such as starting a business or obtaining a Ph.D.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à What is: Internal-Behavior, Internal Problem-Solving-Behavior, External Behavior, External-Problem-Solving

Internal-behavior is my terminology for the internal actions of a system, such as the mind and body, the internal workings of an organization, the internal dynamics of a government, etc. Internal-problem-solving-behavior is similar to the problem solving behavior described above, except it takes place inside a system, such as in the body and mind or in an organization. Behavior in the general sense can be called external behavior to distinguish it from internal- behavior. Problem-solving that takes place in the external environment, can be called external-problem-solving. Generally, any type of external behavior, including external problem-solving, is the result of some type of internal behavior, such as thinking, or some type of internal processing of information.

From this perspective thinking is a type of internal behavior. The thinking process can involve internal problem-solving of various types. In many cases relatively simple thought sequences would fit the definition of simple problem solving, even if they are not connected to external behavior. For example, daydreaming might be an unconscious or conscious attempt to solve the problem of boredom.

Most of us generally assume that all problem solving behavior and information processing in human beings and animals takes place in the brain on a conscious level. Information processing and problem-solving-behavior also takes place unconsciously involving the lower brain centers. This is seen in the response of the body to changes in temperature, where the problem is to maintain body temperature within a certain range, regardless of the external environmental temperature. A similar type of internal problem solving takes place in maintaining the chemical composition and concentration of the various body fluids. There is constant internal problem-solving behavior to maintain the proper blood concentration of sodium, and potassium, and a number of other elements. This is actually an extremely critical internal problem-solving effort, because if there is an unbalance in sodium or potassium for a few seconds the heart will stop.

The body also has a number of chemicals that solve a major problem needed to maintain life, which is control. These chemicals are called hormones, and the overall set of mechanisms involved is extremely complicated, involving hormones that control, stimulate and inhibit the release of other hormones. A simplified example is Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, which is converted to triiodothyroninein in the liver. Triiodothyroninein helps controls the overall metabolic rate of the body. Generally, as thyroxine and triiodothyroninein increase in the blood the secretion of all of the above hormones are inhibited. However, if the need for an increase in metabolism is needed, such as the result of exposure to low environmental temperatures, all of the above hormones will increase, with the ultimate goal of raising triiodothyroninein, which will increase the heat production of the body. A simpler and well-known hormone is insulin, which helps control sugar (glucose) metabolism, and the level of glucose in the blood. Another example involves the control of calcium. Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are two hormones that control the level of calcium in the blood. A simplified description is parathyroid hormone stimulates the release of calcium from the bones into the blood, when blood calcium levels are low. When blood calcium levels are high calcitonin reduces the level of calcium in the blood by forcing the calcium into the bones.

There is internal-problem-solving-behavior that maintains a 24 hour variation of body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and hormone levels. This involves a lowering of body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, as bedtime approaches, and continues downward during sleep, and generally starts to increase as morning approaches. (For more information conduct an Internet search with Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com), Google http://www.google and Google Scholar http://www.google.com/scholar for information on circadian rhythms, circadian rhythms and body temperature, circadian rhythms and blood pressure, and circadian rhythms and heart rate.

Some of the internal problem solving behavior in the human body does not necessarily involve the brain. A good example is the immune system, which demonstrates internal problem solving behavior when bacteria or viruses attacked the body. Other examples include the breakdown of potentially toxic substances by the liver, the excretion of excess chemicals, such as water, sodium, potassium by the kidneys.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à One of the Most Important Components of Problem Solving is Control

If we examine the internal behavior of the human body, especially in relation to its very complex hormone system, we can see one of the major components of good problem solving, which is control. Most problem solving efforts require control. The amount of control that is involved in most simple problem solving efforts carried out by animals, babies, children, and adults, varies greatly. Simple problem solving efforts, may not even involve a conscious awareness of control, or what is being controlled and what is not. A newborn may have no conscious awareness that he is controlling the behavior of his parents by crying when he is hungry or needs a diaper change. In addition, the volume and length of his crying is probably not controlled consciously.

Often, with complex problems there are a very large number of components that must be control to the maximum feasible level. In many situations, a good way to control the relevant components in a problem solving effort is by feedback control. This is similar to the way hormones control the chemical processes in the body. The simplest example of feedback control is a thermostat that turns a heating system on and off depending on the temperature of the house.

The trial and error process is essentially a type of feedback control, but feedback control is usually focused on controlling a limited number of factors that are predefined. Usually, each feedback control mechanism controls one factor. The example of a thermostat mentioned above, only controls room temperature, it does not control humidity, air circulation, or anything else. The trial and error process is more complex, and all the factors that are controlled are not necessarily predefined. The trial and error process usually involves the control of a number of factors. A simple example of the trial and error process can be illustrated with a practice session of dart throwing, with the goal of hitting the center of the target. In this effort, all of the following factors will be controlled in various ways, with an effort to improve performance:

· The focusing of the mind, in relation to the dark throwing

· The focus of the eye

· The position of the body

· The force used to throw the dart

· The angle of the hand movements as the dart is thrown

· The height of the dart as measured from the floor

· Left and right positioning in relation to the center of the target

· And probably many other factors that might be unique to the individual and specific environment where the dart practice is taking place. The important idea to keep in mind is that the trial and error process involves controlling unanticipated factors. This can include compensations with body movements to control for wind, in the outdoors. It can also involve various actions to avoid distractions from the crowd watching the dart throwing session, such as requests for silence or changing the position of the head and body to avoid the distractions.

Another, type of control involves detailed knowledge of the components that are to be controlled. I am calling this type of control knowledge-based-control. For example, the temperature of a house can be controlled (in theory) if the insulation properties and surface area of a house are mathematically determined, and the outside weather conditions, such as temperature, wind, intensity of sunlight, etc are also measured and calculated. With such knowledge, the level of the heating system could be turned up to produce just the right amount of heat, without a thermostat and without any feedback control. In the real world it is very often not possible to measure and calculate perfectly, and thus at least some feedback control is usually necessary. In general, it is probably best to use all the methods of control that you can use in a specific situation, simultaneously, including: feedback control, the trial and error process, and knowledge-based-control.

In most problem solving efforts it is usually necessary to control a number of items, especially the following:

· The financial cost of equipment, materials and services needed to solve the problem This can involve questions such as: How much have we spend thus far on various items? Are we going to have enough money to complete the project? Do we need more money than we anticipated? Can we cut costs?

· The amount of time invested in the project This can involve questions such as are we completing this project on schedule? How much more time do we need to complete this project?

· The various risk factors involved with the project This can involve questions such as how risky is this method, procedure, or medication? How can we reduce the risks involved?

· The time needed to solve the problem and obtain a goal This can involve questions, such as: Are we on schedule? Can we speed up the rate of progress? Do we need more time to complete this project?

· The strategies, methods, equipment, and personnel used to solve a problem must be controlled and corrected by feedback if they are not working properly This can involve various questions of evaluation, such as is this strategy, method, equipment, working to solve the problem? Are there any better strategies, methods, or equipment to help solve this problem?

· Many types of problems involve practice and learning, and when this is the case, it is usually necessary to evaluate and control the process This will generally include a trial and error process, which is a type of feedback control, to correct and improve the results.

In addition to the above, problem solving efforts generally involve some type of system that is doing the problem-solving, such as a person, a group of people, an organization, a computer, or any combination of the above. I am calling this the problem-solving- system. It is usually essential that the functionality of the problem-solving- system is maintained at a high level. Ideally, with complex problems the functionality of the problem-solving-system should be improved, to the maximum feasible level, for optimum problem solving. This can often be done with the trial and error process, experimentation, and the study and implementation of new data, strategies, methods and equipment.

However, when people are engrossed in a major problem solving effort, instead of improving or maintaining the problem-solving- system to the maximum level of functionality, they may inadvertently do just the opposite. That is they often neglect their health in various ways, which is likely to reduce their ability to solve the problem and obtain their goal. If they do obtain their goal, it will probably be a lower quality attainment that it would have been if they maintained good health habits during their efforts.

To maintain the problem-solving system, when it consists of one or more individuals, all of the factors at the end of this paragraph should be controlled. However, most of these factors tend to fall out of control, when there is a major problem solving effort, especially if it involves anxiety, tension, and deadlines. This will often necessitate an investment in time, money and effort to maintain all the factors that have a tendency to fallout of control. The factors that should be controlled include all of the following:

· An adequate amount of sleep, which is often neglected when confronted with challenging goals.

· A healthy diet, that consists of just the right amount of calories.

· Adequate amount of exercise

· The maintenance of harmonious interactions and relationships with all the people working on the project

· The maintenance of all the equipment needed for the project

· The maintenance of an orderly environment

· The control of expenditures in time, money and effort

· The minimization of risks

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior, à Additional Background Information

The ideas presented in the remainder of this topic involve the formation of general behavior patterns, habits, skills, occupational roles, and various types of success. By examining your knowledge and experience in relation to the behavior and life histories of the people you know, including yourself, all of the ideas presented in the remainder of this topic will become apparent. If you have knowledge of the social and psychological developmental process, and habit formation the ideas will be even more apparent.

If you want additional information on the social and psychological developmental process, conduct Internet searches with Yahoo! http://www.yahoo.com, Google http://www.google, and Google Scholar http://www.google.com/scholar for the following:

· Social developmental process

· Psychological developmental process,

· Developmental process and criminal behavior,

· Developmental process and normal behavior,

· Developmental process and social psychology

· Developmental psychology,

· Behaviorism and the Developmental process

· Developmental process and abnormal behavior

· Developmental process and normal behavior

· The psychology of human development

· The sociology of human development

· Culture and human development

If you want additional information about habit formation conduct Internet searches with Yahoo! http://www.yahoo.com, Google http://www.google, and Google Scholar http://www.google.com/scholar for the following:

The psychology of habit formation

How are good habits developed?

How are bad habits developed?

The effect of repetitive behavior on habit formation

Obesity and eating habits

Criminal behavior and habit formation

Abnormal behavior and habit formation

Mental disorders and habit formation

Success and habit formation

Subtopic: Success, Failure, Wellness, Sickness, Etc. as Seen Through the General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior

It is often possible to use general models to examine specific aspects of the real world. That is general models sometimes act as if they are windows that you can gaze through, and view aspects of reality from a specific angle. In the following paragraphs I will gaze through the general model of problem-solving behavior.

The types of problem-solving behaviors that are successfully practiced on an ongoing basis, especially during the developing years, greatly influences or determines, a number of components, including the individual’s personality, habits, skills, occupation, etc. This essentially involves problem solving behaviors that the individual is capable of doing adequately, and the behaviors are generally encouraged by the environmental conditions that the individual lives in. This includes the social, cultural, economic, and physical components of the environment. The ongoing practice can be carried out consciously, unconsciously, or inadvertently. The following examples and paragraphs will clarify this concept:

· An individual that grows up in an educated up a middle-class environment will be coaxed to engage in problem-solving behaviors that relate to school, achievement, and good citizenship.

· An individual that grows up in an environment that encourages criminal behavior, and discourages education, might practice problem-solving behavior that relates to criminal activity.

· An adolescent that grew up with the persistent tendency to resolve conflicts with violence, will probably have little or no skills in dealing with conflict in a friendly way. If the adolescent with the violent attitude, try to reform, he might have to accept losses in conflict situations, because to develop skills to win conflicts in a friendly way probably requires ongoing practice for at least a few years.

· A lawyer, practices the problem-solving-behaviors that relate to a legal education, and the duties of a lawyer. The same idea applies to physicians, pharmacists, chemists, teaches, and all occupations.

This concept, also applies to various types of semiskilled and unskilled labor, such as trash collectors, janitors, doorman, etc. That is people basically become unskilled or semiskilled workers because of problem solving behaviors that they successfully practiced, and the problem solving behaviors that they were unable to successfully practice. For example, an individual growing up in an environment with little educational opportunity will not be able to practice problem-solving behavior related to education. However, he may be encouraged to engage in behaviors involving manual labor, and he may develop muscular strength and related skills in this regard. There is a very important principle here: The types of problem-solving behavior that are not practiced, especially during the developing years, influences to varying degrees a number of components, including the individual’s personality, habits, skills, occupation, and status in the community. Some examples will clarify this idea, as follows:

· A lawyer, a policeman, or a good citizen generally has to have a history of not practicing criminal behavior.

· A highly skilled professional athlete might have some difficulty in practicing behaviors that relate to high levels of academic achievement, because of the tremendous effort needed for athletic practice. Generally, practicing one type of behavior will interfere with other types of practice to varying degrees, which may or may not be significant. This is simply because time and energy are limited.

Another important component that should be clarified is the ability of the individual to practice certain types of problem-solving behavior on an ongoing basis. (To explain this I will use a hypothetical skill, which I will call activity-X.) Some people can practice activity-X, on an ongoing basis with great success. Others have great difficulty successfully practicing activity-X on an ongoing basis. This can simply involve lack of practice, or a considerable amount of practice that does not yield successful results, because of lack of ability. The ability to practice any type of problem solving behavior successfully on an ongoing basis is generally related to the environment, health, and genetics. The most extreme examples that I can think of is gymnastics, ballet, and opera singing, especially at the higher levels of achievement. With these three examples the genetic component will determine if fruitful or successful practice can be carried out to the highest levels of professional achievement. The important idea here is that a person can sometimes practice an activity on an ongoing basis for years, but the practice is not very successful (or not very fruitful). However, with most types of practice the genetic component is probably less important than it is with the three examples mentioned above. Very often environmental conditions are the primary inhibiting factor with many types of practice and related skill development. This can involve financial problems, or social or cultural beliefs that discourage certain types of practice.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à Problem Solving Behaviors and Good and Bad Habits

As mentioned above, the types of problem-solving behaviors that are successfully practiced (consciously, unconsciously, or inadvertently) on an ongoing basis results in the development of good and bad habits. That is problem-solving behaviors that are repeated many times, over a period of months or years, often develop into habits. This includes our eating habits, health habits, work habits, study habits, social habits, and our sleep habits (the time we go to sleep, and the time we wake-up). The sleep habits are most interesting, because it involves the training of the lower brain centers that control the components that relate to the sleep wake cycle, and the 24-hour (circadian) rhythms such as body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, etc.

In general, major problem solving efforts carried out on a personal level often involve the breaking of bad habits and/or the creation of good habits. With some problem solving efforts this is obvious, such as when we try to break a habit of overeating, and develop healthier eating and exercise habits. However, in many situations it is not obvious that our problem involves habits. For example, an individual that wants to go to college to obtain a bachelor’s degree will probably have to develop a new set of study habits, which are significantly different than the habits he developed in high school. With employment problems, it is often necessary to develop a set of new habits when we find a new job. Some of the habits we developed at our previous job may be inappropriate at the new job, and these old habits can sometimes interfere with the development of the new habits. All of this leads to a simple idea that has practical applications, which is to ask yourself the following questions, when you are confronted with a major problem solving effort to alleviate an adverse condition, or to obtain a goal you desire:

· Does this goal require the braking of any habits? If so, what are the habits that I must break? List the habits you need to break. How can I break these habits?

· Does this goal involve the creation of any new habits? If so, what are the new habits that you need to create? List the new habits you need to create. How can I create these new habits?

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behaviorà Breaking Bad Habits from the Perspective of the General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior

Bad habits can represent minor to major difficulties, and breaking habits often requires a major problem solving effort. From the perspective of the general model of problem-solving behavior, bad habits can be broken by practicing one or more behaviors that counteracts the bad habit. For any given type of habit, there is a number of ways that this can be done. A general methodology of breaking bad habits, based on this idea, and the general model of problem-solving behavior, is presented at the end of this paragraph. Essentially the methodology, and related instructions, would apply to almost any type of serious or life-threatening habit, with perhaps some minimal modifications. This includes overeating and obesity, cigarette smoking, excessive sedentary behavior (a habitual avoidance of physical exercise), or any other serious life-threatening habit. The general formula for breaking bad habits is as follows.

A bad habit can be eliminated by ongoing practice of all of the following problem-solving behaviors:

· Get involved with additional pleasurable activities that are healthy, on an ongoing basis. The activities should be new to you, and/or activities that you previously engaged in, and want to spend more time doing. The more healthy pleasure you add to your life the better. However, the pleasurable activities must be carried out in a way that it distracts you from your bad habit.

· Get involved with additional interesting and challenging activities that are healthy on an ongoing basis. This might sound identical to the above, but interesting and challenging activities often produce an intellectual type of satisfaction, which may not be truly pleasurable when engaging in the activities. Activities that are interesting, challenging and healthy often stimulate the entire mind and body, which can sometimes lead to general self-improvement. The activities should be new to you, and/or activities that you previously engaged in, and want to spend more time doing. The additional activities must be carried out in a way that it distracts you from the habit you want to break.

· Try to identify, and remove the unpleasant or uncomfortable factors in your life. Of course, it is usually not feasible to remove everything that we find unpleasant in our life situation, but the idea is to try to eliminate as many undesirable or uncomfortable components as we can, without causing adverse consequences. We may not like many of the activities that we are required to perform. Many of us do not like our jobs, and the duties that we must carryout each day. However, unpleasant activities and situations that cannot be removed from your life can usually be dealt with in ways that make them pleasant, or at the very least less unpleasant. Exactly how to do this differs for each person and situation. This suggests the need for careful thinking, coupled with experimentation and the trial and error process, in an effort to remove unpleasant factors, and to make unpleasant activities that you must carryout, more pleasant.

· Avoid environments and activities that encourage you to engage in the bad habit. For example, parties, restaurants and bars, encourage some people to eat, smoke, or drink excessively. Watching television, movies, and videos, also encourage some people to eat, smoke or drink excessively. You must determine all the environments and activities that encourage you to engage in your bad habit, and avoid them.

· Engage in a physical exercise program on an ongoing basis. It is important that the exercise program is carried out in a way that it is convenient, pleasurable and distracts you from your bad habit. For many people, exercise can be carried out while watching television or videos. (This also prevents overeating, smoking or drinking while watching.)

· Practice healthy living habits, especially adequate sleep, physical activity, and good eating habits on an ongoing basis. This involves a balanced diet, with plenty of fruits and vegetables. Healthy living habits can make you feel better, which might lessen the need to engage in your habit. In addition, efforts to engage in healthy habits can distract you from engaging in many bad habits.

· Engage in ongoing effort to evaluate and improve your strategies and methods to break your bad habit, by using the trial and error process, experimentation, and ongoing study of appropriate material, such as books and websites.

· Experiment with various techniques that might help you, break your bad habit. This can include hypnosis, self hypnosis, and recordings and exercise programs. This should involve Internet searches for various techniques, and a trial and error process to determine what works for you.

· Consider the possibility of getting involved with various types of groups and organizations that can help you break your bad habit. This can include self-help groups, as well as professionally conducted therapy groups. This also involves a trial and error process to determine what works for you.

· Search for the best medical experts that you can obtain, such as physicians, and psychologists. The medical providers should have specialized knowledge in dealing with your specific type of habit. This also involves the trial and error process to determine what type of medical experts and/or medications are helpful in your individual situation. Searching for the best medical providers to treat your condition might be the most important step of all, but it probably would not be very successful without the other steps mentioned above.

· Develop alertness for life circumstances that are likely to distract you from healthy habits, and cause you to return to your bad habit. Adverse problems of various types, unpleasant life events, loss of employment, financial hardships, the breaking up of a relationship, a death in the family, illness, stressful conditions cause people to return to bad habits, or can result in an increase indulgence in bad habits. For example, people that have successfully lost weight or stop smoking, often resume these habits when faced with adverse events. People that have not broken a bad habit, such a cigarette smoking, may smoke even more when faced with adverse circumstances. However, this phenomenon is not limited to adversity. Various types of highly pleasant events can also lead people to indulge in bad habits or return to previously broken habits. This can happen on holidays, vacations, parties, weddings, during any type of celebration. The idea here is to understand the effects of adverse and pleasant events in relation to habits, so you can be prepared to prevent the difficulty of returning or indulging excessively in bad habits. When you are confronted with the distractions of adverse and pleasant events make special efforts to control yourself. If necessary, consult a physician for medication to help control yourself. This can involve having medication on hand to deal with the distractions of adverse and pleasant events, so you do not returned to your bad habit, every time something bad or good happens in your life. In this regard, there are medications that can help, especially for excess eating, and smoking.

· It is probably better to avoid the use of medication to break bad habits, but as indicated above, it is sometimes quite necessary. Sometimes medication is needed at the very beginning of the habit breaking efforts, such as with cigarette smoking. If you have to use medication to help you break a bad habit, try to use it periodically instead of continuously. This might involve using the medication when you first start to break the habit, and then only using the medication during emergency situations, where you are likely to indulge in the habit,

· If you totally fail at any point and returned to your bad habit, do not be discouraged, but get back on your program immediately, and continue with your efforts to break your bad habit. Often it takes a number of unsuccessful attempts before a bad habit is eliminated. Even if you believe you will never be successful in totally eliminating the bad habit, keep in mind that repeated attempts, even if not totally successful usually reduces the overall severity of the problem.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à The Problem Solving Behaviors that we practice has a Tendency to Change Our Bodies and Physiology in Various Ways

The problem solving behaviors that are practiced not only affects psychological components, it can also affect the body and its physiology in various ways. An obvious example is physical activity or exercise will strengthen the body, and the muscles that are exercised will develop. Practicing excessive sedentary behaviors will of course have the opposite effect, and will result in a reduction in muscle and bone mass overtime. The habit of over eating obvious he will increase the mass of the body, in terms of increased fat.

An interesting and less obvious example of the effects of our ongoing behavior, involves the development of varying degrees of immunity to viral and bacterial diseases. This involves developing various levels of immunity to common bacteria and viruses that are carried by the people we interact with. This is especially the case with close intimate interactions. This can become quite obvious, and a very serious problem when individuals from isolated societies, start to interact with individuals from other societies. Bacteria and viruses that are of minimal or no consequence to most of us may result in severe illness and fatalities for individuals from isolated societies. This has happened to the American Indians when the European settlers first arrived on their territory.

In general, our behavior changes are bodies in many apparent and not so apparent ways, including our social behavior, and who we interact with. The important idea to understand is that a persistent set of behaviors practiced over an extended period of time, will usually change the body in very significant ways. This can result in desirable or undesirable changes depending on the precise type of behavior that is practiced on an ongoing basis.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à The Problem Solving Behaviors We Practice Can Affect Our Physical Environment

The problem solving behaviors that we practice on an ongoing basis can also affect our physical environment in various ways. For example, if we are constantly making efforts to maintain a clean and orderly home, the net result overtime will generally be a clean and neat environment. If we frequently engage in decorating our living quarters, such as searching for attractive items whenever we shop, and periodically making purchases of decorative items, our environment will be more attractive than it would otherwise be. If we are usually in a hurry, and do not have the time needed to put every item in its proper place, our environment will become more disorderly overtime, unless we periodically make special efforts to reverse the disorderly condition.

An understanding of the above concept has practical applications. This involves consciously making small improvements periodically throughout the day or weak. The small improvements can involve cleaning tasks, putting items in order, purchasing shelves, furniture, and decorative materials. The idea here is simply to allow the small improvements to add up overtime, which should result in a more functional and attractive physical environment.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à Dysfunctional Problem Solving Behavior

There are many types of dysfunctional problem solving behaviors, carried out by human beings. One of the most problematic category of dysfunctional problem solving behavior involves inappropriate responses to adverse situations. This generally involves anger or aggression, in situations where the response leads to additional adverse results. For example, an individual getting angry at his boss can result in loss of his job. Excessive emotional reactions, including anxiety, fear, and anger are usually dysfunctional, even if they do not result in any direct adverse consequences. The emotional stress associated with such responses, can consume a considerable amount of mental energy, and distract the individual from the activities he must carryout. Emotional responses of this nature can also facilitate functional problem solving behaviors, in both human beings and animals, when the optimum responses is aggression or running from a dangerous situation.

Dysfunctional problem solving behaviors are usually the result of bad habits in relation to how the individual reacts to adverse situations. This type of behavior is usually practice inadvertently over a long period of time, and the individual often may not fully understand that there are more appropriate and functional problem solving behaviors that can be used in adverse situations. Most people recognize the difference between dysfunctional behavior precipitated by anger, or anxiety, and they generally do not engage in excessive dysfunctional problem solving behaviors, in this regard. However, most people do not always function at the optimal level, and occasionally react to stressful conditions by stress with either dysfunctional or less than optimal problem solving behaviors.

Becoming aware of your dysfunctional, or less than optimal problem solving behaviors, is a strategy that can result in improvements in your ability to deal with problems. The process of becoming aware can start with asking yourself some questions, such as: do I ever respond in anger or frustration, when the response is likely to have adverse consequences. Does my responses to stressful difficulties improve this situation or does my response make the situation worse.

Another type of dysfunctional problem solving behavior was mentioned above in relation to returning to bad habits. Many people when faced with stressful circumstances indulge in bad habits such as excessive eating or smoking. Developing a higher level of awareness of such responses, will help you reduce the dysfunctional problem solving behaviors.

Dysfunctional problem solving behaviors can also be the result of lack of knowledge. Sometimes we do not know how to solve a problem, and the actions we take make the condition worse. Sometimes we are trying to obtain a desirable goal, and our attempts causes adverse problems and failures. Of course, this is a general risk of problem solving. Trying to solve a problem always involves some risk. However, studying and learning as much about the problem or goal your working on can minimize your chances of carrying out dysfunctional problem solving behaviors. Developing awareness for errors and adverse outcomes can also result in improvements in this regard. This can involve a careful focus on the results of your problem solving efforts. This can allow you to spot the development of adverse outcomes at a very early stage, which can be used as a signal to change your strategies and techniques to avoid the full manifestation of the adverse outcomes. This essentially, involves using the trial and error process with a higher degree of sensitivity, which allows for earlier corrections.

When we are not alert, we may inadvertently use the trial and error process in just the opposite way, which involves fewer assessments and corrections, which will result in more adverse consequences. This is more likely to happen when we are faced with stressful circumstances, are sleepy, or distracted by internal (pain, worry, anxiety, thoughts) or external stimuli (noise, phone calls, people talking to us, visual distractions). This can be of serious consequence when the problem solving behavior requires quick feedback and responses, such as when driving an automobile. However, when the problem solving does not require quick feedback and corrections, momentary distractions may be of little importance, because errors and inadequate corrective responses can be dealt with at a later point in time, such as the following day. An important general principle is suggested by the above paragraph, which is discussed in the following subtopic.

All of the above dealt with external dysfunctional problem solving behavior. However, internal problem solving behavior can also be dysfunctional. A simple example is the internal procedures and planning of some organizations are dysfunctional to varying degrees. A useful strategy to increase organizational efficiency, is to assume that there is probably at least some internal procedures that are either dysfunctional, or less than optimal. With this assumption, evaluation and improvements of procedures can be carried out more effectively. Without this assumption, it may be difficult to recognize dysfunctional procedures.

Another example of internal dysfunctional problem solving behavior is sometimes carried out by the immune system of the human body. This is seen in certain autoimmune diseases, where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues. Rheumatoid arthritis and lupus are examples.

Subtopic: General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior à The Significance of Time in Relation to Feedback Corrections

Specifically, the many different types of problem solving behaviors involve different time components, especially in relation to the trial and error process. For example, if you are driving a race car a fraction of a second might be very significant. If you are driving the family car at moderate speed, one or two second may be significant. If you are steering a huge oil tanker 30 seconds might be the shortest significant time interval to make corrections. On the other hand, if you are an engineer designing a race car, an automobile, or an oil tanker, you could easily make needed corrections in the plans at any point before the construction project starts. Perhaps from a practical perspective, checking for errors every few hours to every couple of days might be a feasible time interval for engineering plans.

The idea here is to try to understand the precise significance of time in terms of feedback and corrections, in relation to the specific problem or goal that you are working on. This can involve to time intervals, one is the shortest significant time interval and the other is the longest acceptable time interval. For example, if you are checking your goal related plans every few seconds in an effort to make corrections and improvements in the plans that would be dysfunctional. However, if you did this every couple of days that would be quite functional. On the other hand, if you checked your goal related plans once a year that would probably also be dysfunctional because excessively long time interval would not allow for timely corrections. Perhaps, the longest functional time interval for checking correcting and improving most goal related plans might be once a week.

Subtopic: Concluding Ideas and the General Model of Problem-Solving Behavior

Perhaps the most important idea from this model is the concept of ongoing practice of problem solving behaviors. Thus, almost everything in life is influenced or determined by problem solving behavior. The questions to ask yourself in this regard are as follows: What behaviors do you repeat regularly? Try to list on paper, or on a computer screen, the behaviors that you repeat regularly. What will be the long-term affects of these behaviors on your health, your financial status, your skills, your employability, your mental health, your physical environment, your social relationships, educational achievements, etc? By controlling the behaviors that we practiced regularly, we can greatly influence our destinies.

Topic: The Time and Judgment Model of Problem-Solving à A Theoretical Model of Problem-Solving that is Based on Time and Judgment

Subtopic: Introduction to the Model

There are many interesting and practical ways of looking at the process of problem-solving. Each perspective provides a unique set of insights and practical strategies. In this topic I am going to discuss problem-solving from the perspective of time and judgment, which provides an interesting theoretical model and a number of practical strategies. I called this the Time and Judgment Model of Problem-Solving. This model has a number of elements, which I will mention here, but to understand their meaning you will have to read the following paragraphs. This model classifies the different types of problem-solving based on time, such as, reflex, short-term, medium-term, long-term, and T-term problem-solving. In addition, there is short-term, medium-term, long-term, and T-term judgments involved with the problem solving process, from the perspective of this model. This is explained in the following paragraphs, along with theoretical concepts and practical strategies.

Subtopic: What Is Reflex Problem Solving?

The fastest problem-solving are reflex problem-solving.

Reflex problem solving, is my terminology for the very quick problem solving that involves the reflexes. A good example is when an individual accidentally touches a hot pot, which initiates all of the following in a fraction of a second:

1) The situation is evaluated,

2) A conclusion is obtained from the evaluation, which is a dangerously hot pot.

3) The goal is defined as: to remove the hand from the hot pot as quickly as possible, to avoid pain and damage to the hand.

4) Then a series of steps to obtain the goal are delineated. (This of course is a reflex action, but in each situation involving a hot object, the steps, and related muscle contractions and movements are not exactly the same.)

5) Then the series of steps are carried out to obtain the goal of avoiding pain and damage to the hand, which of course is a very quick withdrawal from the hot object.

Another common example, which requires considerably more time than the above, is when you fall on the floor. This can be delineated in a set of steps similar to the above, as follows:

1) The situation is evaluated.

2) The conclusion is I am falling. (The higher intellect might also conclude oh my God, I'm falling, I'm going to ruin my clothing, my God how embarrassing, everybody is going to see me fall, and/or I hope I don’t injure myself or fracture a bone.)

3) A process of repeated re-evaluations is initiated, involving feedback from the muscles, balance mechanism in the inner ears, and the eyes. The data obtained from this process is used to plan and carry out the following series of steps. The incoming data from this process is also used to evaluate progress towards the goal, and to make needed modifications in the steps or the goal itself if necessary.

4) The goal is set to regain balance to avoid the fall, and the alternative goal is set if the first goal turns out to be unattainable, which is to minimize pain and damage to the body upon impact with the floor.

5) Then a series of steps to obtain the first goal are delineated, and additional steps are added in case the first goal turns out to be unattainable. (The first series of steps generally include hands, legs, head, and torso movements, to regain balance. The alternative goal involves a variation of these movements, where the hands are pushed away from the body with the palms opened and the arms bent to absorb the impact of the fall. These movements also usually include the head pushed backward in opposition to the floor, to prevent impact with the floor. )

6) Then the first series of steps are carried out, and if they fail the second series of steps are carried out.

It should be understood that the steps that I indicated in the above examples are only theoretical, and they represent extreme simplifications of a very complicated process. The actual process involves simultaneous processing of various steps in different parts of the central nervous system, especially for the complex movements involved with the muscles.

Subtopic: What is Short-Term Problem Solving?

Short-term problem solving is my terminology for problem solving that takes place in less than 60 seconds, and involves judgment, and cognitive processes. Most complex problems, which take extended periods of time to solve, such as months or years, are composed of a large number of short-term problems. That is they can be broken down into a series of short-term problems, or can be conceptualized as a number of short-term problems. Most of the activities that we do throughout the day are also comprised of a series of short-term problem solving. This type of problem solving is based on a series of short-term judgments. Some examples will clarify this idea. If the phone rings, all of the following takes place presented here in eight steps. Note, each of the following eight steps involves short-term judgment.

1) A process of evaluation and repeated re-evaluations are taking place, based on incoming sensations from the eye, ears, nose, etc. This involves a series of short-term judgments about the stimuli, such as ignore that sound; ouch my foot hurts, but that’s not important now; what’s that sound, is that the telephone?

2) Conclusion is obtained: the phone is ringing.

3) The situation is evaluated: such as is this phone call for me; am I expecting a phone call; should I leave my desk to answer the phone, or should I let someone else answer it?

4) The goal is set, based on: I will answer the phone.

5) Then a series of steps to obtain the goal are delineated. This can involve visual imagery, involving the location of the phone and the twists and turns that have to be made to reach it.

6) Then the series of steps are carried out, which are corrected by feedback.

7) Then an evaluation involving short-term judgment is made to assess if the goal has been obtained, and everything is as it should be.

8) Then the process is repeated with another short-term goal, starting with step 1.

The above eight steps are essentially the same for any short-term problem. Of course, the goal, steps, and other components may differ, but the basic eight steps outlined above would be the same for most short-term problems. The most important concept is short-term judgment, which is discussed under the next heading.

Subtopic: What Is Short-Term Judgment?

Short-term judgment is my terminology for the series of quick judgments and related actions that people are constantly making as they are dealing with daily activities. These quick judgments and related actions often relate to a series of questions or thoughts that are created in our mind as a result of what we are seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, etc, coupled with our knowledge and experience. The answers to these questions can be thought of as our responses. Using the example of the telephone once again, will clarify this concept, as follows:

· When the telephone rings the following questions and responses might be generated, on a conscious or unconscious level. What is that ringing sound? Oh it’s the telephone. Should I answer the telephone? Or should I let someone else answer it? I do not want to leave my desk, because I’m so busy, but it looks like nobody is answering it. Yes, I better answer it, it might be important, which is followed by getting up from the desk, walking over to the telephone, and lifting up the receiver, and talking.

In general short-term judgments can be conceptualized as questions and related responses that result from what we are experiencing at a specific instant in time. The experience can be the results of our own thought processes, body sensations, and/or what we are seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling, etc. The sequence of questions and related responses generated from internal and external environmental experiences can take place on a conscious or unconscious level.

Subtopic: All of the Above Suggests Ways that we can Improve our Short-Term Problem Solving Abilities

Problem solving in general, whether it takes a few minutes, or an entire lifetime, is comprised of a series of short-term problems solving efforts. Short-term problem solving is essentially comprised of a series of short-term judgments. Short-term judgments are comprised of a series of questions and related responses to the questions, which are constantly being generated from what we are experiencing at a specific instant in time. Thus, if we can figure out a way of improving our questions and responses in regard to short-term judgments, we can improve all of the above, including our general problem solving ability.

We can improve the questions we ask ourselves a number of different ways. The first way is obvious. Become more knowledgeable, especially in relation to the specific areas of problem solving that you are dealing with.

Asking your self the following questions can help in this regard, and in many problem solving situations:

· Do I have enough information to respond to this question, or solve this problem?

· Where can I get more information that will improve my chances of successfully dealing with this situation?

· What additional information do I need to solve this problem?

Another way of improving our short-term problem solving and short-term judgment is to ask ourselves more questions. Asking more questions can make us think more extensively.

Subtopic: What is Medium-Term Problem-Solving?

I am defining medium-term problem solving as problem solving that takes one minute to as long as a week. Typical examples of such problems are a clogged up drain, a power failure, and most home repair jobs, minor dental problems, and writing a letter or a report. In addition, most daily activities, even though most of us do not consider them problems, come under the category of medium-term problems, such as cleaning the house, baking a cake, cooking a meal, shopping for groceries, driving to work. Usually, but not always, problems in this category have solutions that are obvious, but such problems can sometimes cause a great deal of inconvenience. For example, a power failure, a plumbing problem, or a minor dental problem can usually be solved quite easily by calling an electrician, plumbing, visiting the dentist. However, they can sometimes cause much inconvenience. Medium-term problems can sometimes turn into difficult problems that require more than a week to solve. For example, if you have a plumbing problem, and do not have the money to pay for the needed repairs, you will be faced with the difficulty that may take weeks to solve if not longer.

Subtopic: What is Medium-Term Judgment?

Like short-term problem solving medium-term problem solving involves judgments. I'm calling these judgments medium-term judgments. These judgments involve significantly more thinking and evaluations then short-term judgments. Short-term judgments generally do not involve any research, or consultation with others, because short-term judgments take place in less than 60 seconds. The medium-term judgments involve time intervals of over 60 seconds to one week. This allows plenty of time for research, and discussions with other people.

Are medium-term judgments comprised of short-term judgments? The answer is no. However, medium-term judgments do involve short-term judgments, but they are not comprised of the short-term judgments. For example, if somebody decides to buy a new computer, that is a medium-term judgment, but the decision also involved a number of short-term judgments. For example, the individual may have asked himself a number of quick questions, such as, what time does the computer store close? I think it closes at 8 PM. Should I take a train or taxi? Where did I put my credit cards? Which credit card should I use?

Managing many personal, business, and employment related decisions, involve medium-term judgments, including financial decisions. Most purchasing decisions over $30 probably involve medium-term judgments, for working-class and middle-class people. People that are lacking in skills that relate to medium-term judgments will very likely have difficulty with financial matters, even if they have adequate financial resources. However, most financial problems are probably not caused by inadequate medium-term judgments: the causes are generally lack of financial resources.

Many personal life decisions, in the adolescent years involve medium-term judgments, but individuals in this age range are not always highly skilled with medium-term judgments. This can involve deciding who to date, which party to go to, which friends to hang out with, whether or not to get drunk, take drugs, go for a joy ride, skips school, skip work, come home late, do homework, etc. Generally, the relative degree of success of an individual, in school, on the job, and in life in general, can be traced partly to the quality and specific nature of their medium-term judgments.

(It should be noted that all of the following material in this paragraph also relates to long-term judgments, but not short-term judgments.) The quality and effectiveness of many types of medium-term judgments relate to practice, especially as explained in the previous topics. However, not all medium-term judgments relate to practice. When medium-term judgments are repeated and require a repetition of a roughly similar set of actions, they involve practice. For example, if an individual repeatedly makes the same judgments about the necessity for studying, and it results in completing homework, the judgment relates to practice. Medium-term judgments of this type are reinforced by practice, especially if it results in success or other rewarding experiences. In general, if a medium-term judgment repeatedly results in the same medium-term decision, it constitutes practice. This applies to constructive actions, and also counterproductive, and destructive behaviors. For example, an alcoholic, a drug addict, a good student, an athlete, all engage in medium-term judgments, and related medium-term decisions, which result in their status, as an alcoholic, drug addict, good student, and athlete. In effect, an individual’s medium-term judgments and the resulting ongoing practice determine the individual’s status in many ways. However, environmental, educational, social and financial conditions of an individual’s family and community, generally greatly influence, and limit medium-term judgments, especially in relation to feasible choices. That is medium-term judgments and related decisions are influenced and limited by an individual’s life circumstances. For example, if an individual that is living in extreme poverty, decides to purchase a computer that may not be a feasible decision. In such a situation, the decision may relate to a poor or a dysfunctional judgment, especially if the money is needed for food. However, if a middle-class individual made a similar judgment, and purchased a computer, the judgment and related actions would generally be very constructive and sensible.

Subtopic: How Can I Improve My Medium-Term Problem-Solving Ability?

Medium-term problems as previously stated are comprised of a series of short-term problems. They can also be represented as a series of steps. Analyzing a medium-term problem into a series of steps can sometimes help in improving results and/or efficiency. This can simply involve a conscious effort to become more aware of the individual steps that are involved with your medium-term problem solving efforts. That is when you become aware of each step; you can evaluate the task, and replace one or more steps with alternative steps that are more efficient. Also, it can become obvious that you are carrying out unnecessary steps to complete a specific task. While you are performing a task, periodically ask yourself is the step necessary, or is there a better way of completing this step? Is there a faster, easier, and more efficient way of carrying out the step? Listing the steps in writing will help you evaluate the individual steps, and make improvements based on the trial and error process.

Medium-term problem solving can be improved also by developing an understanding of the various challenges and difficulties that you are likely to be confronted, with at home and work. Then, make appropriate preparations to deal with those difficulties in an optimal way. The questions to ask your self are: What problems and tasks am I likely to be confronted with? How can I optimally prepare for these tasks and problems? For example, if you are likely to be confronted with various home repair tasks, improvements in your ability to deal with these tasks can be achieved by buying an appropriate set of tools, and having the telephone numbers of plumbers, electricians and other repair personnel handy.

Learning how to deal with medium-term problems your self sometimes has significant advantages over obtaining assistance from repair personnel, or other individuals. Examples of such problems are malfunctioning computers or clogged up drains. Learning how to rectify such problems is quite feasible, for some individuals. This strategy can also be very counterproductive for some people, if they lack the time, ability or inclination to do certain tasks, or make specific repairs. Performing a task that you do not have experience in doing can be time-consuming. The best strategy is to have professional personnel perform any task that you find especially time-consuming or have difficulty completing for one reason or another.

Subtopic: What Is Long-Term Problem Solving?

Long-term problem solving involves tasks that last longer than a week, and sometimes require months, and years to solve. This includes all long-term goals, such as obtaining a college degree, studying any subject in detail, developing skills, major repair and construction projects, experimental research projects, etc. Problems in this category sometimes do not have any apparent solution. Solving long-term problems may require research, experimentation, and the trial and error process to obtain a solution. Most long-term problems, require considerable expenditure of money, assistance from experts, a learning process, self-discipline, many of the other components already discussed in this booklet. Long-term problems involve a series of steps or subgoals. Long-term problems can also be thought of as a series of medium-term problems.

Subtopic: What is long-Term Judgment?

Long-term problem solving involves short-term judgments, medium-term judgments, and long-term judgments. Long-term judgments are defined here as judgments that involve time intervals over one week. Judgments in this category often involve repeated evaluations over a period of time. This allows enough time for research, consultation with experts, friends, and other individuals. It also allows time for prolonged study to determine the optimum decision. Typical examples of long-term judgments are whether or not to marry specific individual, which involves a series of evaluations that takes place over a period of months or years. Political decisions, such as who to vote for, often involve long-term judgments. This can involve evaluations based on news reports, over a period of several months, or longer. People, who are selected for the advancement into high levels of management, are often evaluated in terms of long-term judgments, based on their performance.

Long-term judgments might also include or necessitate a series of short-term and medium-term judgments. However, this does not necessarily imply that long-term judgments are composed of medium and short-term judgments.

Subtopic: How to Improve Your Long-Term Problem Solving Ability

Long-term problem solving ability can be improved by developing the knowledge and skills that are specific to the type of problem you are dealing with. In addition, becoming familiar with various experts that relate to the problem you are dealing with is also quite important. Generally, all of this involves studying, reading and researching for information and for expert assistance. Most of the strategies mentioned in this book will improve your long-term problem solving ability. Often, the primary factor that determines whether long-term problem is ever solved is money. Money can sometimes transform a long-term problem into a medium-term problem. This is discussed in a number of subtopics in this book, and the basic solution is to learn how to obtain funding for your goal, by searching for sources of government and private grants.

Since long-term problems often involve a series of medium-term problems, which involve a series of short-term problems, improving your abilities with these two categories of problems will greatly enhance your ability to solve long-term problems.

Subtopic: What Is T-Term Problem Solving?

T-term problem solving is my terminology for problem solving efforts that take various lengths of time, ranging from a fraction of a second to many years. Thus, T-term problem solving is a generalization of the above concept. The idea here is that to deal with specific problem, set a value for T, which is the approximate time that the problem solving effort should take. For example, if your problem solving effort is cleaning the house, T might be equal to 4 hours. However, if you are building a house T might equal 6 months. The value of T is important for many reasons, but the most important reason is it determines the level and type of mental effort that is possible for specific problem. For example, if T= ten hours, it may not be feasible to consult experts, except perhaps on the telephone, and it would not be feasible to engage in long-term study, or to read an entire book on the subject. However, if T is equal to15 minutes, the mental effort that goes into the problem will usually be limited to a single individual. This can involve reading a couple of paragraphs about the problem. However, when T equals one year, there is plenty of time to consult experts, read books about the problem, and take formal courses that relate to the problem. It is also possible to engage in extensive research, and experimentation with long-term problems.

Subtopic: What is T-Term Judgment?

T-term judgment is my terminology for judgments that take various lengths of time. It is essentially a generalization of the above concept of short-term, medium-term, and long-term judgments. The concept essentially is used with T- term problem-solving. The idea is to set a value for t in terms of the time that you have to make various judgments in a specific problem solving effort. For example, if you have three days to solve a problem, T equals three days. However, the time estimate for various judgments related to the problem solving effort will be less than three days. Perhaps it will be eight hours, thus t equals eight hours.

Subtopic: How To Improve Your Problem Solving Abilities With T-Term Problem Solving and T-Term Judgments

The entire idea of this model and its utility can be summed up by asking yourself the following questions, when you are engage in a problem solving effort. How much time do I have to solve this problem? What are the judgments and related decisions that I must make with this problem? How much time do I have to make the decisions? Do I have enough time to make good judgments, and solve the problem successfully? Is it necessary to read and study information in relation to this problem? Is it necessary to consult experts with this problem? Would more time help me solve this problem better, than I could solve it otherwise? Is it possible to obtain more time to solve this problem? Would additional assistants from experts or technicians help solve this problem within the planned time limitations?

A very important idea to remember is a problem that cannot be solved with one value of T can often be solved with a higher value. That is if you can not solve a problem you might be able to solve it with more time. The idea to keep in mind, with more time, you might be able to obtain more information, more funding, more expert assistance, more equipment, more ideas, and more time to experiment and engage in the trial and error process. More time also allows for prolonged practice, which is required for many types of problem solving efforts. Additional time can also be used to eliminate anything that is interfering with the problem solving effort. More time can also be used to change all of the circumstances that relate directly or indirectly to the problem. Of course, you have to determine if the problem is worth the additional time investment. Keep in mind that additional time investment often requires the expenditure of more money.

Subtopic: Short-Term, Medium-Term, Long-Term, Judgments and Problem Solving are Interrelated, and they may Function Synergistically or They May Be in Conflict with Each Other

It is very important to understand that medium-term judgments, related medium-term problem solving can be influenced or distorted by the nature of short-term judgments that take place in similar time intervals. Keep in mind that the word judgment does not imply that the judgment was healthy or sensible. For example, if an individual makes a decision to complete several hours of homework, even if he succeeds in his objective, his short-term judgments can cause many distractions in some cases. However, just the opposite can also be true. In general, short-term judgments can either reinforce medium-term judgments, and problem solving, or they can cause disruptive interference to varying degrees.

The same idea applies to long-term judgments and long-term problem solving. Short-term and medium-term judgments can either reinforce long-term judgments and problem solving, or they can interfere with long-term objectives. The general principle here, which is very important to understand, is that the three categories of judgments can be in conflict with each other, which can cause difficulties in goal attainment. When there is significant conflict, it is likely to result in serious difficulties in obtaining desired objectives.

Another very important idea to understand is, very often, but not always, short-term judgments are greatly influenced by our emotions. Medium-term and long-term judgments and problem solving may be partly influenced by emotions also. However, they are primarily created and guided by the intellect. For example, an individual may have worked out a plan to lose weight, but his short-term judgments can result in periodic snacking, which can make the desired goal of losing weight impossible.

The objective perhaps should be to figure out a way of coordinating the three categories of judgments, and related actions, so they are not in conflict. Some of the following may be helpful in this regard:

· When you have a feeling, or desire to do something that interferes with your goal, try to resist the desire. Try talking to your self. Try to use self hypnosis, which involves talking to your self in a deep state of concentration, or relaxation. If you do not believe you can resist a specific desire, delay it as long as possible, before you give in to the temptation. For example, if you have a strong desire to eat something that is excessively fattening, while you are trying to lose weight, try to postpone eating the fattening food as long as possible. Try to distract yourself, and get involved in another activity. Take a walk, or do some exercise to distract your self from the fattening food as long as possible.

· Ongoing practice that is focused on your goal might reduce interference from dysfunctional short-term judgments and related desires. Ongoing practice can also help you learn to resist the interfering thoughts and feelings that comprise short-term judgments.

Topic: Conceptual Models of Reality

Subtopic: What Is A Conceptual Model?

Based on the way that I am using the terminology it is compiled data that relates to an entity, which can be used to make predictions about the entity, including its behavior, and its interaction with other entities. The compiled data can consist of one or more of the following:

Computer software that relates to an entity

Mental impressions that relate to an entity

Visual impressions in the mind, or on a computer that relates to an entity

Tactile information that relates to an entity

Structural information that relates to an entity

A theory that relates to an entity

A hypothesis that relates to an entity

A set of ideas, or beliefs that relate to an entity

Any information in the human mind, on paper, or in a computer that relates to an entity

The entity can be an object, a set of objects, a set of entities, a classification of physical objects, any chemical, or mixture of chemicals, atoms, subatomic particles, molecules, minerals, rocks, mountains, any type of energy, plants, animals, bacteria, viruses, or anything else.

Subtopic: Three Types of Conceptual Models

Conceptual models allow human beings, animals, and computers to make predictions, with varying degrees of accuracy, about people, how to find food, how to cultivate sources of food, about moving through terrain, about moving through a room, about the weather, about the movements of the planets, about chemical reactions, etc. Conceptual models come in at least three different types, which are computer models, mental models, and graphic models, which will be explained in the following paragraphs.

Subtopic: Conceptual Modelsà Computer Models

Computer models consist of software. An example is a computer program that predicts the movements and location of the planets, which incidentally can be purchased for a relatively low price for home computers. Another example of a computer model is an aircraft simulator, which is used to instruct pilots in how to fly an aircraft in a control panel on the ground. One of the best-known examples of a computer conceptual model is software that attempts to predict the weather, which generally requires a supercomputer. There are many more possible examples of computer models, which are used in science and engineering. Computer conceptual models are usually called computer simulation models, because they mimic or simulate the behavior of an entity, or set of entities.

Subtopic: Conceptual Modelsà Mental Models

Mental models are similar to the computer simulation models, but they exist in the human mind, and probably also in animals. Most of us deal with certain types of problems with mental models, which may be done, consciously, unconsciously or inadvertently. A simple example of a mental model can be experienced, if you think of a room you know well, and answer the following questions:

· Where is the light switch in the room?

· How many pieces of furniture are there in the room?

· What color is the furniture?

· Are there any table lamps in the room, and if there are how many?

· What color is the ceiling in the room?

· What color are the walls?

· What color is the floor?

· Is there a rug in the room?

· Does the room have tiles on the floor?

· Is there oilcloth on the floor?

· Does the room have a polished wood floor?

· How many windows are there in the room?

· How many electric outlets are there in the room?

In general, our ability to function in our daily lives depends on our conceptual models, and if these models are defective, we will have problems. If they are superior in functionality, we will function in a more harmonious, efficient and healthier way. As we walk through our house, place of employment, or the city streets, we are using our conceptual models. When we communicate and/or work with people we are using our conceptual models of people. For example, we have conceptual models of the expected behavior of policemen, sanitation workers, our boss, men, women, girls, boys, the electrician, the plumber, the carpenter, and the physician. We also have conceptual models of each individual we know. Generally, the better we know someone, the better our conceptual model of that individual will be. This allows us to predict and understand the individual and his behavior. Getting to know someone, essentially involves building a conceptual model of them, which usually becomes increasingly more accurate over a period of days, weeks, months, and years. Conceptual models, especially of people, are often constantly modified based on our observations and our interactions with them.

Sometimes people have difficulty in creating accurate or appropriate conceptual models of the various entities that exist in our world. This can cause serious problems, especially if the deficient or defective models involve people. These difficulties, in forming accurate or functional conceptual models, can sometimes be the result of neurological deficiencies. However, problems of this nature are often caused by interference of conceptual models that were previously formed. For example, if an individual happened to have a number of bad experiences with a racial group, he might develop inaccurate and counterproductive conceptual models of all members of that group. Even when he gets to know someone from that racial group, his previous conceptual model, might interfere with the formation of an accurate conceptual model. I used the example of a racial group, but the same idea would apply to lawyers, doctors, policemen, instructors, members of the opposite sex, etc. Sometimes, our beliefs system interferes with the formation of accurate conceptual models. This is probably the primary cause of most forms of racial prejudice, as opposed to the idea described above.

All of the above suggests the need to figure out ways of developing the most accurate conceptual models that we have of the world. The question is how can this be done? If you become very aware of the process of conceptual model formation that takes place in your mind, you will be able to make more precise models. Becoming, aware will allow you to make corrections and improvements in your conceptual models. Another way to increase the accuracy of your conceptual models is to carefully observe, people and there actions, especially the way they interact with you, and other people. This applies to other entities also, not just people. In general, the better your ability to observe, the better your models will be. When you observe, if you can put your belief systems or any prejudicial ideas you might have aside, the better your conceptual models will be. In addition, when you are forming conceptual models, or using them, try to think in a nonprejudicial way. This is especially the case when you are using your conceptual models, especially when you are dealing with a critical situation, such as demanding arrays from your boss.

Examining, a problem from two or more perspectives, generally involves using two or more conceptual models. For example, when you are negotiating with someone, try to create a mental model in your mind that represents their position and their feelings. Then consider your own position. If this is done correctly it can often be a considerable amount of help with negotiating, but it can also be very useful for ordinary communications and interactions with other people. If you can see things from the perspective of other people, as well as your own view, you have a very powerful technique to deal effectively with other people.

Subtopic: Mental Models, Theories, Hypothesis and Conceptual Models, What Is the Difference?

Theories and hypothesis are conceptual models, and they are also mental models. Theories are generally considered to be established, or widely accepted as correct, or as a good explanation for a phenomenon. Hypotheses are far more tentative than theories. They are not generally accepted as correct or as good explanations until there is experimental evidence. If good experimental evidence is obtained for a hypothesis it might be designated a theory. However from the perspective of most practical problem solving efforts, the distinction between theories and hypothesis is usually not important, unless your problem involves formal scientific experimentation.

A conceptual model, based on the way I'm using the terminology, is a general category. All theories and hypotheses are conceptual models, but all conceptual models are not necessarily theories or hypotheses. For example, the imagery of your bedroom, with the layout of furniture, and the location of the light switch, electric outlets, and windows is a conceptual model, but it is not a theory or hypothesis. Animals appear to have similar imagery of terrain, which allows them to navigate long distances, which is especially apparent in birds. These are apparently conceptual models that help the animal navigate, but they are certainly not theories or hypotheses.

From the perspective of practical problem solving, we can consider a theory (at least on a personal level,) as a principal or idea that you found to be true or useful in solving a number of problems. A hypothesis, from the perspective of practical problem solving, is an idea or principal that you are not sure will work, but you are using it in your problem solving efforts, with the hope that it might help you obtain your goal.

Theories and hypothesis are very important for some types of problem solving and goal attainment efforts. When you develop a good theory, you obtained insight, which can lead to one or more ways of obtaining a solution or goal. From the perspective of problem solving, you should never be limited by your theories, hypothesis, or beliefs. That is to say, each time you apply a theoretical or hypothetical concept, you should focus on the feedback, and make any corrections that are needed in your efforts to obtain your solution or goal. For example, if you apply the laws of gravity, to determine where a rock will fall when dropped from a mountaintop, and you find that it repeatedly misses the target because of the wind, you should make appropriate corrections in your predictions. This might involve a corrected prediction, involving plus or minus 10 feet from the target. All of this boils down to: employ the trial and error process to make corrections in your theoretical and hypothetical predictions, as well as your overall problem solving efforts.

Subtopic: Mathematical Models Are Also Conceptual Models

Mathematical models are a specific type of conceptual model that involves mathematics. Mathematical models are commonly used in applied and theoretical science. However, they are also used in everyday life. A simple example of a mathematical model is an input output model used for balancing your checking account, creating a budget, losing weight, gaining weight, and maintaining weight. The idea here is whatever goes in increases the stored quantity of money, fat, or anything else, and whatever goes out, reduces the stored quantity. Another commonly used mathematical model, relates to principles of ratios. If we have a recipe for three servings, but we need nine servings, we know that we must increase every ingredient in the recipe by three times.

In science, and engineering mathematical models are used extensively. Sir Isaac Newton’s theories are examples, based on the way I am using the terminology. The same applies to Einstein’s theories, and most of the theories in physics and chemistry.

Very important idea about mathematical models that is often misunderstood or ignored even by some scientists is they are not necessarily correct or perfect. Mathematics in itself is a concept that is essentially derived in the imagination of human beings. Assumptions are created and ideas are derived with the assumptions. Anyone that understands mathematics at a moderately advanced level can create mathematical models that work on paper, but do not work in the real world.

Another very important principle in this regard is the mathematical models that work in the real world, generally are not perfect. Very often even established mathematical models fail to predict accurately when they are used to deal with unusual or extreme cases. This should not be much of a surprise, if we looked at the common sense arithmetic models that we use in our daily lives. We generally take for granted, base on this model that 2 plus 2 equals 4. According to the laws of arithmetic this is always true, but in reality it is conditionally true. There are exceptions where the model fails. For example, if you mix two cups of water and two cups of milk, it works - you have four cups of liquid. However, if you mix two cups of alcohol and two cups of water, you do not end up with four cups. If you add physical objects together by placing them in a pile, such as stones, the arithmetic model works, but only to appoint. If the pile of stones became astronomically large, such as the size of the sun the arithmetic model would fail. This is because the stones would melt into one giant mass of burning hot material, as a result of the net gravitational forces of the individual stones. These forces generally a two-week to even be noticed or accurately measured, but when the total mass of stones is astronomically huge, the gravitational forces become tremendous. This sometimes actually happens in space in various ways, with all kinds of material, hydrogen, dust, rocks, etc., and it results in the formation of stars and planets.

Another example of a mathematical model that fails under very extreme conditions is Newton’s theories. Under extremely high velocities, faster than a spacecraft has ever traveled, there are significant failures with Newton’s mathematical model. This is noticeable when objects are moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light, such as one-fourth of the speed of light. The amazing thing about all this is people were surprised when Newton’s model failed at these velocities. There should not be any surprise in this regard, because Newton’s model was based on velocities that were of a much lower magnitude.

The general principle here is that mathematical models should not be presumed to be accurate under extreme or unusual conditions, unless there is scientific verification in this regard. This requires experimentation. When a model fails, to predict accurate results, employing the trial and error process will result in a new mathematical model that is accurate under the related set of unusual or extreme conditions.

Subtopic: All Mathematical Models are Conceptual Models, but are all Mathematical Models Theories?

Most of the mathematical models that we commonly in counter in daily life, and in physics, chemistry and engineering, are theories or are based on a logical or theoretical framework. Many of these models have been logically derived, by applying assumptions, and principles of physics, and mathematics. However, it is possible to create mathematical models that are purely based on measured statistical outcomes of interacting entities. This can involve measurements of various behaviors, or interactions of a group of entities with another set of entities, and calculating probabilities. Models of this type do not represent insight or an understanding of a system, but it can represent the statistical behavior of a system. For example, how often a system does something, functions in a certain way, or malfunctions in a specific way. This can also represent statistical correlations, such as when X occurs it is followed by Y 80 % of the times, which is followed by Z 70 % of the times. A more specific example is: a severe economic hardship of a nation is followed by war X % of the times, which is followed by an improvement in economic conditions Z % of the times, but only if the nation wins the war.

Subtopic: All Mathematical Models Are Conceptual Models, But Are All Mathematical Models Mental Models?

When any model is contained in the human mind it is a mental model, which is the case of most commonly known concepts of mathematics, and physics. However, mathematical models can be placed into a computer, or even derived by a computer based on repeated statistical outcomes. In such a case, they are not mental models, by definition. They are computer models.

Subtopic: Semi- Mathematical Models Are Also Conceptual Models

Most of our mental models are not mathematical models, but many of these models have semi mathematical properties. For example, the conceptual models of our kitchen, best friend, or next-door neighbor are not mathematical. However, these models are in a sense semi mathematical models, because they can often be used to obtain mathematical estimates, or guesstimates. For example, you can examine the imagery in your mind, and obtain estimates of your friend’s weight, height, waistline, and age. This general idea applies to most of our conceptual models. That is they give us the ability to make many different types of estimates that are mathematical in nature.

Subtopic: Mental Models and Animals

Mental models also appear to exist in the minds of animals, but most likely at a relatively simpler level, then in humans. Many animals appear to have mental maps of the terrain that they navigate through. This is especially the case with birds, because they can travel through relatively complex terrain, and returned to their nests. Birds have also been known to migrate thousands of miles, to escape the colder months of the year.

When pets first encounter their masters, they might be frightened, and small animals such as hamsters, and white mice, may initially bite anyone that touches them. However, overtime it appears that most animals develop a conceptual model of their masters, which is associated with comfort, protection, food, and water. This can take a period of time.

Generally speaking, animals use conceptual models to solve problems of navigation, of finding food, of finding hiding places from their enemies, and to determine what creature is an enemy, harmless, friend, or pray. The ability to create conceptual models based on experience and observation is required for survival for both animals and human beings.

Subtopic: Graphic Models As An Example of Conceptual Models

Based on the way I am using the terminology, a graphic model is any graphic or sculptural representation of an entity that allows us to make predictions about the entity. This includes any type of line diagram, and two-dimensional or three-dimensional representation that can be used to make predictions about an entity. The best example is a map, an electronic diagram (electric schematic diagram), a scale model of a ship, a building, an airplane, etc. Models in this category, generally allow us to make predictions about movement in terms of travel, or where to find specific structural components. However, some graphic models, such as electric schematic diagrams, can be used to predict whether or not an electronic circuit will work, and what it will do. That is if an electrical engineer examines a schematic of a circuit, he can tell you if the circuit will work, and what it will do. Various types of architectural and instructional diagrams are also examples of graphic models. Anytime you sketch a diagram, to solve a problem, you are dealing with a graphics model. For example, if you sketch a diagram to figure out how to arrange your furniture in a new room, you are dealing with a graphic model. In addition, any type of photograph is potentially a graphic model, if it can be used to make predictions about an entity.

Computer graphics can also be classified as graphic models, if they allow us to make predictions about an entity. A good example is a computerized map. The most interesting graphic model I ever encountered is the Google map of the world, which is discussed in the following subtopic.

Subtopic: A Conceptual Model of the World: the Google Map Is an Example of Both a Graphics Model, and A Computer Simulation Model

The Google map of the world appears to be composed of a very large number of photographs, taken from space satellites, airplanes, and helicopters. These photographs are combined and controlled by software, as if you are looking at a single object, under different levels of magnification. The Google map can give you a view of the terrain of the earth as seen from thousands of miles in space. This by itself is certainly not amazing. The amazement comes when you use the zoom function. It is possible to zoom in to the point where you can recognize cities, and by zooming further you can recognize neighborhoods, and skyscrapers. If you zoom in still further you will see automobiles on the ground. With the downloaded version of Google map of the world I was able to view planet Earth as a sphere and by zooming I was able to see the building I live in. Then I zoomed still further it appears that my living room window was visible. It was somewhat blurred, but it was almost certainly my living room window, or a window of one of my neighbors. (I live on the 10^th floor).

I was also able to examine a number of tiny streams on a mountaintop, which gradually came together to form the Niall River, which was easily traceable all the way to the ocean. These images consisted of a series of relatively sharp photographs formed into a single image. You could zoom in to examine relatively fine details of the various rock formations along the Nile River.

This map has many computerized functions. It can also be classified as a computer simulation model, because it simulates the planet Earth as a single three-dimensional object that can be rotated by pushing with the mouse cruiser. It provides the ability to travel through specific pathways on the surface of the earth, as if you were traveling by a car, boat, or airplane. You can simulate travel through roads, highways, streets and neighborhoods of the city, mountain passages, rivers, and oceans. You can test out various itineraries to evaluate the relative degree of safety and feasibility, such as pathways through mountaintops, jungles, and rivers. With the controls on the Google map you can also superimpose a sketched map over the photographs, which provides information similar to a regular map.

The Google map is a very powerful problem solving tool, for practical, academic and scientific problems involving geography or earth science. You can use it as a map of your neighborhood, or a map of your city or state. It is also especially useful as a map of the United States, or any other country, on this planet. It appears to be especially useful as a roadmap. From a scientific perspective, you can study the geological structures and rock formations of the earth. You can see the erosion produced by streams of water, some of which lead into rivers.

At this point in time, there are two versions of the Google map of the world. One is downloadable and functions on your computer, the other version functions on one of Google’s servers. If you do not have a powerful computer with a large amount of memory, you will probably be better off with the second version, which essentially functions from a website. Both versions worked well on my computer, but I have 2000 megabytes of random access memory on my system.

To download Google map of the world go to:

http://earth.google.com/

The following will take you directly to the download site for Google map of the world:

http://earth.google.com/download-earth.html

To view Google map of the world on-line,without downloading any software, go to:

http://www.googlesightseeing.com/

Subtopic: Problem Solving and Conceptual Models; do we Always Need a Conceptual Model to Solve A Problem?

The important idea here is when we solve a problem we do not necessarily need a conceptual model. We can solve problems one of the following three ways. One way is to ask someone that knows how to solve the problem, or lookup the information we need to work out a solution ourselves. This can work very well for a common problem that is fairly simple. Another way is if we learned a specific answer, action, or a set of steps to solve a problem, we do not need a conceptual model. For example, you do not need a conceptual model to answer the following questions: When did Christopher Columbus discover America? What is your name? Where do you live?

However, the following questions are also very simple, but they cannot be answered without your conceptual models, because they are very unusual problems.

· Problem 1) Describe the sequence of events that would take place if a paper cup filled with eight ounces of water was suspended over a candle, with the flame touching the bottom of the cup.

· Problem 2) Describe the sequence of events that would take place if lighter fluid was used in the above experiment instead of water. Is there any risk involved with this experiment? If there is what is the risk, and how can the experiment be performed in a safe way?

Now the question is how did you know the answers to these questions? It is highly unlikely that you ever tried these experiments. It is also equally unlikely that you ever read about these experiments, or seen them demonstrated. What processes or mental imagery or ideas went through your mind to provide answers to the above problems? All of this suggests another question, as follows:

Problem 3) If you were able to answer the above questions (problems 2 and 3) how did you do it? That is how did you work out the answers?

Our conceptual models allow us to solve problems that we never faced before. I made the above example fairly simple, for demonstration purposes. Most likely you were able to provide perfect answers to the above questions.

Conceptual models also allow us to solve problems that involve the construction of an entity, which is especially the case with scientific and technical models. For example an electrical engineer can create new types of circuitry based on conceptual models of electronics. However, even the common sense conceptual models that we all develop can be used to construct new entities. For example, if I ask you to make a doll house using cardboard, you probably could do it successfully. If you think about it, you probably can solve many problems in unique ways if you employ your conceptual models more often in your efforts to obtain solutions and goals. The use of your conceptual models, coupled with the trial and error process, are extremely useful problem solving techniques for many types of problems. However the idea to keep in mind is to always employ the trial and error process when applying your conceptual models to solve problems. If this is not done, you may be limiting your problem solving ability by less than perfect conceptual models. The idea to keep in mind is Most conceptual models are not perfect, which necessitates the simultaneous use of the trial and error process.

Topic: A General Model of the Creative Process - - - - - à A General Theory of Creativity

In the following paragraphs we are going to look at creativity from a very unusual perspective, which is not based on the conventional psychological concepts. From the perspective of the general model of the creative process, I am defining creativity in a very general way, as follows: Creativity is a behavioral sequence that results in the creation of a new entity, which includes all of the following:

· The evolutionary process that resulted in bacteria, viruses, plants, animals and human beings[1]

· The chemical evolutionary process of various organic chemicals, which was followed by the development of life on earth

· The various social and cultural evolutionary processes that have taken place in different localities from the beginning of the human race

· The evolutionary process involving the gradual development of technology from the Stone Age to the Industrial Revolution to our modern times.

· The evolutionary processes that have led to the development of the many natural languages that exist throughout the world

· Any other evolutionary process that leads to the creation of an entity

· The mutation process that takes place in bacteria, viruses, plants and animals

· Any other type of mutation process that results in a creation of a new or modified entity

· Any system or process that modifies an already existing entity.

· The creative process carried out by human beings, such as the creation of poetry, songs, music, paintings, sculpture, philosophies, mathematics, theorems, theories, books, electric generators, batteries, electric light, radios, TV sets, computers, the Internet, airplanes, jet planes, rockets, one family homes, buildings, skyscrapers, as well as anything else created by humans.

Based on the above definition, and the examples, it is apparent that human beings are not the only entity that exhibits creative behavior. The dynamics and structures that comprise nature exhibit creative behavior. Each ecosystem displays its own creative behavior, which can be seen in the plants and animals that adapt to the ecosystem. This of course does not imply that, ecosystems or nature represent conscious entities, which are intentionally creating something the way a person does.

I have found that even small artificial ecosystems, such as a terrarium, can sometimes display creativity. That is, the terrarium can be a type of evolutionary system, under the right conditions, where plants that cannot adjust well to the environment partly or totally die out, and are replaced by other plants that are more suitable for the terrarium’s environment. This can take place over a period of six months to one year, and it of course totally changes the appearance of the terrarium. If the conditions in the terrarium change, such as changes in light, frequency of watering, or a reduction in the fertility of the soil, the plants might once again die out, and be partly or totally replaced by other plants. The structural changes in the terrarium probably do not involve true genetic changes or mutations in most cases, and when compared to nature these changes are minimal. The dynamics and structures that constitute nature, have existed for over a billion years and have created very complex living structures, ranging from microorganisms, to trees, to snakes, dinosaurs, monkeys, and human beings.

As was indicated in the introductory paragraph, there can be chemical, social, cultural, linguistic, technological, evolutionary systems. Even animals and sophisticated machines such as the computer in theory can also engage in creative behavior, to varying degrees. As should be apparent from the above, evolutionary systems are not limited to plants and animals.

However, the creative process, whether it is carried out by an evolutionary system, a human being, an organization, a monkey, or a machine, essentially involves a common set of factors and dynamics. This implies that a unified theory or conceptual model can be created that can be used to designate factors and dynamics that are generally involved with creativity. Such a model could be used to study, analyze, and improve various creative processes. It could also be used to invent new creative methods and systems. In the following paragraphs, such a model is delineated and explained, five steps, as follows:

1) The first step of the general model of the creative process is a creative environment, which by definition contains the building blocks needed to build a new entity. An example of a creative environment is the earth and atmosphere just before life began. The building blocks were probably water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, nitrogen and other chemicals. Another example of a creative environment is a construction site, with cement, bricks, and other materials that are continuously delivered into the environment where the building will be constructed. Still another example is an ecosystem, such as a forest, and the building blocks are the chemicals that are used to create the shrubbery, trees and animals, in the forest. An artist’s workshop is also an example of a creative environment, with the building blocks consisting of paint and canvas.

It is essential to understand the nature of the building blocks involved with the specific creative environment. The nature of the creativity, and the quality of the entities created, can often be manipulated by modifying the building blocks. A simple example, if you provide the ample supply of the best paint and canvas, in an artist workshop, you will probably obtained better paintings, then if you supplied poor quality paints. The nature and availability of building blocks can change sometimes in undesirable ways in some types of creative environments. Undesirable building blocks or components can interfere with the creative process. Sometimes this can happen unintentionally, where industrial chemicals enters a natural ecosystem. This of course can result in significant, and often undesirable, changes in the creative process that takes place in the ecosystem.

2) The second step of the general model of the creative process is a controlled source of energy, which moves the building blocks into their proper position to create a new entity. I am calling this type of energy structuring-energy, because by definition it is involved with creating structures. The precise nature of the structuring-energy in a specific system or situation is very critical, because the intensity, frequency, duration, and even pulsations of the energy can be very important. In general, everything that relates to the structuring-energy, including directional forces or vectors produced by the energy determine if an entity will be built, or the type of entity that will be created.

Examples of structuring-energy are as follows. The structuring-energy that created life is believed to be ultraviolet radiation from the sun, and/or electric impulses from lightning. This caused chemical reactions (probably involving water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, nitrogen) that resulted in the building blocks of proteins, which are amino acids. The amino acids reacted with each other, and with other chemicals, which could have been facilitated by the structuring-energy from the sun in the form of light and heat. Another example is a chemist trying to reproduce the chemical reactions that took place on earth over a billion years ago in the laboratory, with ultraviolet light and high-voltage electric pulses, (with water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, nitrogen), which has been done successfully. Still another example is sunlight, striking the leaves of green plants, causing the plants to grow and reproduce.

An artist creating a sculpture is also an example. The structuring-energy consists of the physical movements of the hands. This is a form of highly directed and controlled mechanical energy, which was derived from chemical energy, ultimately from the food the artist ate. Another example is the mechanical energy used to create a skyscraper. This involves bulldozes, cement mixes, and cranes, precisely controlled and directed ultimately by the human brain.

The last two examples suggest a very important idea about structuring-energy, which is what causes it to create specific structures with specific types of building blocks. Of course, with the two above examples, there is no mystery. The brain of the artist and the brains of the people that design and build skyscrapers are responsible for creating the specific types of structuring-energy, mentioned above. However, in other situations, it is not always clear exactly how the structuring-energy functions. In other cases, we may examine an entity, and be uncertain about the nature of the structuring-energy that created it. The most obvious example is exactly how complex life forms developed on earth. What was the exact nature of the structuring-energy or structuring-energies? Some of this riddle was mentioned above, but it dealt with how the chemicals of life were created, not how life was created. The theory of evolution, fossil remains, and our modern knowledge of mutations and DNA provide more of the riddle, all of which involve various types of structuring-energies.

Many reactions and formations of entities are probably the result of the unique properties of various building blocks (especially complex organic chemicals) and the available energy, coupled with random chance. When many very large numbers of molecules or other entities are involved, the concept of random chance changes to certainty in relation to specific structural formations. That is a structural formation that has a one in one billion chance of forming will almost certainly form, when trillions of molecules are involved. This is especially the case when we are talking about extended periods of time, such as hundreds of millions of years.

The concept of structuring-energy suggests many lines of experimental research. Experimental study of the different types of structuring-energy involved with different creative processes will be very insightful, and probably useful in various ways. Some interesting experimental research that is suggested by the concept of structuring-energy and the general model of the creative process are as follows (Note in the following the structuring-energy in form of pulsating electric currents or light, that very infrequency and amplitude.)

· Is it possible to use controlled electric pulses, instead of light to make green plants grow? This would probably require low amperage and high voltage pulses. The pulses can be tested with different frequencies, especially radio frequency electricity.

· How does various types of pulsating and alternating electricity (in terms of variations in frequency, amperage, voltage) affect various chemicals and chemical reactions? Most likely, organic chemicals (carbon containing chemicals) would form either more complex or less complex structures, or decompose when under the influence of specific types of pulsating electric currents. It would very likely be possible to selectively break and form chemical bonds of organic chemicals, by using high frequency electricity that is in resonance with specific chemical bonds. It might be possible to selectively destroy specific types of DNA and RNA, with high frequency electricity that is in resonance with specific chemical bonds in the DNA or RNA. This might be useful in selectively destroying cancer cells, viruses, or bacteria.

With the computer, and a few additional pieces of hardware (such as transformers) it would certainly be easy to produce extremely complex electronic pulses, that very in frequencies and amplitude. Such complex electronic pulses will probably affect chemical reactions in unique ways. This might be useful in creating new chemicals that have unique molecular structures and properties.

· All of the above experiments can be also done with pulsating light, or with pulsating laser light, which can include very quick variations in frequency and intensity. In addition, the above experiments could also be carried out with a combination of electricity and light. The light involved in these experiments can include ultraviolet light, and even other forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as gamma rays.

3) The third step of the general model of the creative process is selection of specific entities or structures, based on a specific criterion. For example, when an artist is creating a sculpture from clay he might discard some of his work, if it does not meet high-quality artistic standards. In addition, an artist working with clay will form small structural variations in the clay, as he works. Some of these structural variations will be selected, and other structural variations will be destroyed. This selection process is based on the criteria of the artist, in terms of his goal. That is structural variations in the clay that are desirable in terms of the sculpture are selected, and other structural variations will be removed. This is essentially the trial and error process, which involves structuring energy, and a process of selection, based on a specific criterion, or set of criteria. One of the best examples of this selection process is Darwin’s theory of evolution. This involves a natural selecting process for plants and animals that can successfully survived and reproduce. Plants and animals that do not meet this criterion become extinct. This selection process is related to the ability of the organism to obtain adequate food, protect itself from enemies, and adverse weather conditions, and find mates. The important idea to keep in mind is that essentially all creative procedures, whether carried out by an evolutionary system, a machine, or human being, involve a selection process. This also implies a rejection process, where the undesirable entity or structure is removed or destroyed.

The above suggests some useful ideas. The first is to delineate what your selection criteria for a specific creative endeavor is. Sometimes we are not even totally aware of our selection criteria. Becoming aware of it allows for evaluation and improvement. The second idea is to ask your self some questions about your selection criteria with the goal of making improvements. Asking yourself what are the components of my selection criteria? Are any of the elements of my selection criteria inadequate, excessive, unrealistic, or deficient in some other way? Are there any additional elements that I can add to my selection criteria? Are there any elements that I can remove from my selection criteria?

4) The fourth step of the general model of the creative process is proliferation, which does not always take place.

As the term is used here, proliferation means an increase in numbers of the entity, and/or its popularity or demand. This generally involves an increase in the area or volume that the entity occupies. It can also involve an increase in the number of entities per square area, or volume. For example, the number of bacteria per cubic inch will increase in food that is not refrigerated. The surface area that the entities occupy can also increase. For example, the surface area occupied by humans, is believed have been limited to Africa. However, overtime humans increased in number and spread throughout much of the surface area (landmass) of the earth.

Of course, with many entities there is only one produced, and they are not popular or not demand by the general public. That is they do not proliferate. However, there are many entities that are mass-produced, ranging from soap, to automobiles, and they proliferate. When a mass-produced entity is truly successful, it proliferates greatly, to the point where it might be sold worldwide. In evolutionary systems, successful entities also proliferate, and the more successful they are, the more they proliferate usually. This is obvious from the plants and animals that inhabit the earth.

5) The fifth step of the general model of the creative process is extinction. I am using the word extinct, or extinction to mean the disappearance, death, destruction, decomposition of an individual entity, or an entire class (species) of entities. Eventually, all entities die out, disappear, or decompose into the building blocks that they were made of. With animals, the dinosaur is probably the most well-known example of an entire species becoming extinct. However, there are many plants and animals besides the dinosaur that became extinct.

Basically, plants and animals generally go through a cycle, where they come into existence, probably as a result of a series of mutations. If they are successful they proliferate. Then eventually start to decline in numbers, which can happen very slowly or very quickly. (Many people believe that the dinosaurs became extinct very quickly, as a result of a meteorite striking the Earth.)

Interestingly, mass-produced products often go through a cycle that is similar to plants and animals. First a prototype is created, and then the product eventually goes into mass production and starts to proliferate. If it is successful it proliferates even more, then it eventually declines in demand, and eventually it will be taken out of production.

Section-5: Problem-Solving in the Real-World. What Do You Need to Solve Real-World Problems?

Topic: Introduction to Practical Problem-Solving

Real-World Problem-Solving Pencil & Paper Problem-Solving?

I have been interested in creative and logical problem solving techniques before I started my college studies. I always enjoyed subjects that involved problems, including the physical and social sciences, and mathematics. In college I studied many subjects that dealt with problem-solving from various perspectives. This included four terms of calculus, and a number of courses in the physical and social sciences.

I gained insight and developed skills in various types of problem-solving as a result of these studies. However, as my knowledge grew, I noticed a tremendous discrepancy between the requirements of real world problem-solving, and the methods I was learning from books, articles, and from school. In school, to solve problems you only needed a pencil and paper, sometimes a calculator or computer, nothing more. In real life there are a large number of other components that are needed to solve problems. The primary difference is in school you generally did not have to make any physical changes in the real-world to solve a problem. However, changes are the primary objective of problem-solving in business, science, engineering, and in everyday life. For example, solving a physics problem involving the production of electricity with a nuclear reactor in school does not involve risk of radiation, it does not involve communicating with engineers and scientists, it does not involve conducting feasibility studies, and it does not involve writing grant proposals, and it does not involve money. Solving a problem in a management theory course, does not require complex interactions with superiors and subordinates, communication skills, telephone calls, writing memoranda and reports.

In school generally every problem has a solution, and it is solved on paper. Usually, a solution can be obtained in less than 20 minutes, if you did your studies. If you could not work out the solution, you could always ask the instructor. In the real-world, every problem does not have a feasible solution, and when there is a solution it usually takes hours, days, weeks, months, or years to obtain. However, most real-world problems have many solutions, but very often they are difficult to obtain, and involve investments in time, money and effort. There are many problems in daily life, and in science and industry that do not have any apparent solution.

The material I studied in books, articles and in school actually is quite useful for problem-solving. However, much additional information must be added to this knowledge to solve real-world problems. This book bridges the discrepancy. The previous and following topics provide the additional information.

Topic: How to Improve Your Ability to Solve Problems by Obtaining More Problem-Solving Resources

What do you Need to Solve Problems in the Real-World?

The components needed to solve problems can be placed into two categories, one is very specific to each problem, such as the precise information, mathematical concepts, tools, machinery, and experts needed to solve a specific problem. The other category is more general, and it has application for solving many types of problems, and they are discussed in this chapter.

What are problem-solving-resources?

There are many components that basically have general utility for solving many types of problems, and I am calling them problem-solving-resources, and they will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Generally, the more you have of these resources, the better you will be at solving real-world problems. However, the primary idea in this section is that you can improve your problem solving capability by obtaining more problem-solving-resources. How to do this is explained below.

A Very Important Subtopic: Money Is The Most Important Problem-Solving-Resource.

Money is probably the most important problem-solving-resource, which is perhaps commonsense. The reason for this is most problems usually require the purchase of equipment, materials, as well as professional and technical services. Money can compensate to varying degrees for most of the other problem-solving-resources discussed below. For example, if you do not have the basic ability to solve a problem, because you lack technical knowledge, you can higher someone that has the skills.

Problem-solving, is very often quite expensive. Of course, if it is a simple personal problem, or problem in mathematics or logic, it might not cost anything. However, generally to solve even a personal problem, usually costs anywhere from $ 5 to $100,000, if not more. If the problem represents typical goals that people have in life, such as completing college, buying a house, starting a business, the cost is obviously many thousands of dollars. If the problem is an industrial or major scientific project, the costs can range from perhaps $1000, to hundreds of millions, if not more. This raises the question, what do you do if you do not have the money to solve your problem? There are three possible solutions that are sometimes feasible, when there is not adequate funding to solve problems, and they are described below.

A Very Important Subtopic: If you do Not Have Enough Money for your Problem, Consider Government and Private Grants

There are many types of funding available to solve specific types of problems. For medical problems, there is usually some type of insurance available. For personal problems and scientific research there are many types of government grants. There are also many types of private grants. All of the above should be your main focus even if you believe that your problem does not qualify for funding, because you may be pleasantly surprised. This process should involve an extensive Internet search, until you either obtain adequate funding, or are certain that there is no funding for your problem. The following subtopics deal with both of these issues, How to Increase Eligibility for Funding to Solve a Specific Type of Problem? and How to Conduct an Internet Search for Government and Private Grants.

A Very Important Subtopic: How to Increase Eligibility for Funding to Solve a specific type of Problem?

The above raises the question, what do you do, if your project does not fit the criteria of the funding agency. Perhaps you cannot find any agency that is willing to fund your project, because it does not fit their criteria. One solution is to modify your project. Often slight changes in a project, and the way it is explained, can result in meeting eligibility requirements of a funding agency. Appropriate changes can make a project potentially fundable by many agencies. Some examples will clarify this idea. If your project involved a hobby, such as poetry, dancing, acting, graphic art, zoology, archeology, computer technology, science, it is highly unlikely any funding agency will provide assistance. However, if you modify the hobby into a college course of study, and/or into a future occupation, in a way that is truly legitimate, it will qualify for substantial funding.

Note I originally obtained the above idea from a Columbia University physics graduate student, in an informal face-to-face discussion about funding for physics projects. I do not remember his name. I greatly, expanded the basic idea, so it would apply to many types of funding, such as funding for personal problems, and goals that relate to hobbies, education and employment. This should be apparent from the above paragraph.

The above idea can work very well with scientific projects. Theoretical research projects can sometimes be modified so they have practical applications. For example, if you are developing new laser technology, to obtain funding you could assess the possibilities of medical applications, such as to destroy cancerous tumors. When such modifications can be made, it will increase the chances of obtaining funding, because more agencies will be interested in the project. Even if substantial modification has to be made in a project, it will probably be worth while if it results in an increase in funding.

The general idea is whenever possible devise research projects so that it will have many practical applications, which will very likely; increase the chances of obtaining funding.

The important idea here is to use your creativity. Ask yourself when dealing with any type of problem: How can I modify this project, so I can obtain funding for it? This is ideally done before you start your project. Creating a project that is likely to qualify for funding should be your goal before you even start.

A Very Important Subtopic: How to Conduct an Internet Search for Government and Private Grants

There is a huge amount of information available on the Internet on how to conduct an Internet search for government and private grants. I placed the above highlighted words in a search engine, (Google) and I obtained 7,780,000 results. For an Internet search with the word grants I obtained 43,600,000 results.

The web addresses, at the end of this subtopic are a few of the web sites that I looked at. Many of these websites contain directories that have links to hundreds of other websites that deal with specific types of grants.

Probably the best way to start an Internet search for grants is to start with the search terms at the end of this paragraph. If you do not obtained satisfactory results, be creative, and experiment, with search terms that relate to your problem and goal. Keep in mind that the Internet often requires trial and error, experimenting, and searching through many results. For detailed information about Internet searches see the subtopics in this booklet that deal with computers and the Internet.

When you see a line of dashes like this --------- it means that you should add the words that relate to your goal. This can be the subject, such as photography, biochemistry, psychology, or it can be your role, such as, chemist, instructor, photographer, student, mothers, fathers, etc. or it can be both subject and role.

· Research grants for ---------

· Government grants

· Private grants

· Private grants for

· Financial assistance

· Financial assistance for ---------

· Grants for ---------

· Funding for --------

· Scholarships

· Scholarships for ---------

· Free money

· International scholarships

· International research grants for -------

Also see the following websites:

http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/grants/federal.htm

http://www.mindspring.com/~ajgrant/guide.htm

http://fdncenter.org/funders/grantmaker

For academic funding see: http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/grants/4acfrais.htm

http://dir.yahoo.com/Education/Financial_Aid/Grants/?o=a

Also conduct searches for books on funding. This can be done in large bookstores, libraries, and on the Internet. For the Internet try using the following search terms:

Book on funding for college

Book on funding for graduate school

Book on government grants

Book grant proposals

Book How to obtain grants

Government publications on grants

Another very useful source of information can sometimes be obtained by talking to people who may have received grants, or individuals that are in charge of giving out grants. This includes college students and financial aid officials from colleges

Writing a grant proposal: the following websites provide information on writing a grant proposal:

http://www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeId=102

http://www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeId=1730

Subtopic: Other Sources of Funding

There are also various types of special loans, such as for starting a business, for college and graduate studies. Try the following search terms:

· Student loans

· Education loans

· Loans for graduate school

· Small-business loans

· Equipment loans

For personal problems finding additional employment is another way funding goals and problem solving efforts. Saving money by cutting expenses is another possibility. For scientific research and engineering projects funding is sometimes attainable from an employer that is interested in the project.

The important idea is when you do not have enough money to work on your problem or goal consider every possibility, before giving up. Talk to people, do Internet searches, consider the possibility of loans, additional employment, etc. another good alternative is to try to figure out a way of working on your problem or goal with more economical strategies and methods. Very often careful thinking and re-evaluation will result in a plan that involves much less expenditure.

Subtopic: If You Find A Funding Agency For Your Project What Do You Do

Note, the idea to keep in mind is that each funding agency is unique, which necessitates detailed research and study of each agency you deal with. The general information provided here should be of some help, but to obtain funding requires an understanding of the agency and its requirements.

Generally, when you find a source of funding, it usually requires documentation. The documentation can range from filling out a simple form, to writing a lengthy report, or grant proposal. With large-scale industrial projects, feasibility studies, and environmental impact studies may be also required, before funding is obtained.

It is very important to understand the nature of the funding policy of the agency, you are dealing with. This can sometimes be difficult, because funding agencies can have official and unofficial policies, as far as who obtains the funding. Some funding agencies are highly selective, and they reject or discourage most applicants that apply. However, many funding agencies for personal problems are not selective, and may except all qualified applicants, but this is not necessarily the case with all such agencies.

In general, it is necessary to do some research, and asked some questions of several individuals in the agency, to determine its relative degree of selectivity. Asking questions do not always produce a clear answer, and sometimes answers can be ambiguous or incorrect. It you obtain an answer such as it depends on the merits of your proposal, they are probably highly selective.

If you are submitting a general request that many individuals or organizations are likely to submit to a funding agency you probably will have less difficulty than if you were submitting an unusual request. If you are requesting something unusual, such as a specialized piece of equipment for a research project, they will probably require much explanatory documentation. In general, the more individualized, or unusual the request, the more selective and rejecting the funding agency will probably be.

There is two ways to deal with extremely selective funding agencies, and generally both methods should be utilized. One is simply to not rely solely on any single source of funding, especially if it is highly selective. Submit your proposal and documentation, but also search for other sources of funding. The more potential sources of funding that you find that relates to your problem, the greater the chances are of obtaining assistance. Obtaining partial assistance from a number of sources can often be the best option.

The other way to deal with extremely selective funding agencies is to write the best grant proposal possible. This can be very difficult to do for most people, even professionals, because many of us learn counterproductive writing habits in daily life and in school. When you are not asking for money, people usually want you to be as brief as possible. If you are writing a note, there is usually no need to provide every detail, and to go through lengthy explanations. The same usually is true in school. It is not necessary to explain everything in extreme detail, because the instructor is generally highly knowledgeable about the topic you are writing about. However, this is not usually the case, when you are submitting a request to a funding agency that is selective, especially if the request is unusual. With selective funding agencies, it is usually necessary to write at least one or more detailed documents. This would probably involve at least one long report.

If you ask the individuals at a funding agency, about the nature of such documentation, you might obtain incorrect information. Generally people do not want to read long documents, and it is easier for the staff at such agencies if they obtain a brief document, and then reject your request. In general, it might be easier to reject a request for funding in such agencies, than to accept the request and provide the money. The best strategy is probably to explain every part of your project in detail, even if it requires many pages. However, provide a brief summary at the beginning of the report that contains all the information that they need. Ideally this summary should be only one page in length. The detailed information should be placed in approximate order of importance. That is place the most important information in the beginning of your report followed by less important information. With this format you generally do not have to be concerned about the length of the report. That is this format gives the staff at the funding agency a choice. If they do not need the detailed information you provided they will have the option of reading the summary at the beginning of your report. If they do not fully understand your request, or plan to reject it, they may be obligated to obtain additional information, by reading the entire report. This can provide the additional information and persuasion to obtain your grant.

Most of the important information in a grant proposal ideally should be explained to the staff verbally as well as in writing. This may not always be feasible, but in general, written documents are greatly reinforced when they are combined with spoken language. The reason for this is explaining anything in spoken language, provides immediate feedback. That is you can hear and see the way the listener is responding to your statements, such as in terms of questions, comments, tone of voice, body language. These responses can tell you if the listener understands the words and explanations you are using. You might be able to determine their attitude, and there objections. This allows you to make appropriate changes in your style of communication, and it will very likely indicate questions and concerns that you should address in your correspondence and final report.

There is another very important reason why documents should be used with spoken language. Specifically, people often do not read all of the important documentation they obtain. They may read sections of the material, and they may make inaccurate assumptions about the content of your documents. A series of discussions can rectify any inaccurate assumptions, and provide any additional information that is needed.

Another very useful strategy is to provide verbal and written information over an extended period of time, if feasible. This can involve a number of brief documents and discussions submitted over a period of weeks or months. This strategy allows you to learn about the requirements and attitudes of the staff in the funding agency. More importantly it provides the opportunity for the people at the funding agency to learn about the project that you are requesting funding for. This can be very important if the project is complicated or unusual.

Incidentally, all of the above represents a very useful communication methodology that is useful for many situations, not just to obtain funding. It is potentially useful for any situation that requires documents, persuasion, and education of the recipients of the documents. This communication strategy is useful in sales, in obtaining business partners, in working out contracts with employees, and organizations, and in some cases it might even be a useful strategy to obtain employment.

Subtopic: Power is Probably the Second Most Important Problem-Solving Resource

Power is probably the second most important component in problem solving. Actually power, based on the way I am using the word, represents a number of components. That is I am using the term power in this text to mean the ability and authority needed to carry out the tasks to solve a problem, and make the changes required for a solution or goal. This means that the problem solver must have the self-discipline, willpower, physical and intellectual ability, legal authority, social acceptance, permission, the cooperation of others, etc to carry out the problem-solving process, and make changes needed to obtain a solution. This essentially can be represented in terms of different types of power, as follows: self-discipline-power, willpower, social power, physical power, intellectual power legal power. All of this is discussed in the following subtopics.

Subtopic: What is Self-Discipline?

The concept of self-discipline is similar to willpower, but the way I am using the terminology they are not identical. Self-discipline, as the term is used in this text means the ability to control your time and actions, in relation to your goals or problem solving efforts. Self-discipline also involves the ability to resist temptations to engage in pleasant activities that are distracting and counterproductive to your goals. Self-discipline is the ability to control your self in a way that is consistent with your values, plans and goals. This raises the question: What do you do if you do not have adequate self-discipline?

Subtopic: How to Reduce the Need for Self-Discipline, and How to Increase Your Self-Discipline

Make your work in relation to your problem-solving efforts, as pleasant as possible. You should try to make it enjoyable. Usually this can be done many ways, but each individual must determine precisely how to do this for themselves, with some creative thinking and the trial and error process.

The important idea to consider in this regard is many tasks, and goals, and problem-solving efforts, can usually be completed a number of different ways. Choose the way that you find most pleasant, or perhaps least unpleasant. Some examples will clarify this idea. If you want to complete college or graduate school, choose the school, course of study, and major you find most enjoyable. If your problem involves writing a Ph.D. thesis, a book, or even a term paper, choose a topic that you find interesting and enjoyable.

If your problem-solving efforts involve sitting, you can make yourself more comfortable by periodically moving your legs, and every hour or so get off your seat and do some mild exercise. This can include periodic stretching exercises and a brief walk every hour. If you are in good shape jogging across the room a few times every hour or so, can be a good strategy. This type of mild exercise helps maintain alertness, and can make written work more comfortable and enjoyable.

Develop a method of handling your time that works well for you. There are also many books that deal with this topic, which is time management. However, what works for one person may not work for another. To develop good time management strategies that work for you requires the trial and error process, and experimentation.

Generally, creating a list of priorities in your mind or on paper for daily tasks can help. Place the most important tasks on the beginning of the list, and try to complete them first. You may not be able to complete everything on the list, but the most important items will be completed with this method.

Specific tasks that you find very unpleasant, can sometimes be completed by hiring a temporary assistant. This can work very well with many tasks that some people find unpleasant, such as completing paperwork for tax returns, housecleaning, and cooking.

It could be argued that all of the above does not increase self-discipline. It actually reduces the need for self-discipline. Self-discipline can probably be increased by evaluating the importance of the tasks that you are dealing with. Talking to yourself and doing some careful thinking to assess why various activities are important to you might be helpful. The idea is to try to become more aware why a task is important on an emotional level. However, the most important idea is to practice developing self-discipline, by forcing yourself to do the work that you must complete. The following subtopic will also be helpful in this regard.

Subtopic: What is Willpower?

Willpower, as the terminology is used here, means the ability to control desires and impulses, and/or tolerate some uncomfortable sensations, without being distracted from your goal. That is willpower means the ability to tolerate the discomforts that are often associated with various types of problem solving efforts. For example, losing weight can result in hunger sensations, perhaps coupled with a strong impulse to eat excessively. Strengthening the body with exercise can produce some fatigue and muscle soreness. Problem-solving efforts that involve sitting, such as writing, can also produce some uncomfortable sensations as a result of lack of movement. Solving any type of problem that involves winning the acceptance of other people, such as finding employment, making new friends, finding a mate, can be at times embarrassing and anxiety provoking to varying degrees. The individuals with a high degree of willpower will not let any of the above discomforts stop them from their objective. Individuals with little willpower will be distracted from their goal by discomforts associated with the problem solving effort, including the discomforts mentioned above.

There are different types of willpower that relate to specific activities and problems. For example, one individual may have a tremendous amount of willpower in relation to academic studies, but they may have very little willpower when it comes to controlling their eating habits or carrying out and exercise program. In general, this concept is best delineated as: willpower in relation to X, where X equals a goal or an activity, such as studying, losing weight, exercising, etc. All of this raises the question: What do you do if you do not have enough willpower to carry out the steps and activities needed to obtain your goal or solve your problem? The answer to this question is provided in the following subtopic.

Subtopic: How Do You Increase Willpower?

Focusing your attention on unpleasant body sensations, will reduce your willpower. Doing the opposite will probably increase your willpower in most cases. Focusing your attention on the activities that you are trying to complete will also increase your willpower. In general, focusing on your work, or anything pleasant, will probably increase your willpower. Setting a challenging goal or sub-goal, especially if it involves completing a task in a specified interval of time, can also distract you from any discomfort, and increase your willpower. Generally focusing on uncomfortable body sensations makes you more aware of the discomfort and reduces your willpower. Focusing your attention on anything else, especially your work, will increase your willpower, because you will be less aware of the discomforts.

Another method of increasing willpower is to try to remove as much discomfort as possible, and to make yourself as comfortable as possible, while carrying out the tasks related to your problem. (This strategy was already mentioned above, in relation to self-discipline, which is closely related to willpower.) For example, uncomfortable shoes, clothing, room temperature, chair, can decrease your willpower.

Hostility and conflict with other people can also reduce your willpower. Generally hostility should be avoided, even if it involves making significant sacrifices, because it can severely consume willpower. Avoiding individuals that you have difficulty getting along with can also be a good strategy.

Poor health habits can decrease your willpower dramatically, and good health habits will have the opposite effect in most cases. The most important component in this regard for most people is getting adequate sleep. Lack of sleep not only reduces will power, it also can reduce the quality of your work. Eating excessively can also reduce your willpower, because digesting excess food requires energy, and it can also make you sleepy. Proper body weight makes it easier to perform most physical tasks. A regular exercise program that is controlled can make you stronger and more alert which can increase your willpower. However, vigorous exercise performed at the wrong time can decrease your willpower. For example, if you do vigorous exercise just before you do studying, reading, writing, or any task that involves sitting, you will possibly experience a reduction in willpower, due to fatigue. Vigorous exercise is best done after completing critical tasks that are performed while sitting. However, mild exercise carried out for about five or ten minutes can sometimes help increase willpower, especially if it is done just before you engage in tasks that involves sitting. This will work if the exercise is done in such a way that it makes you more alert. If it is done in a way that makes you fatigued, even if it is mild, it will still reduce your willpower.

Another method that can help increase your willpower is to remove as much stress and unpleasantness from your life as possible. If you are suffering from excessive work, difficult life circumstances, or any other problem, it can interfere with your willpower. Human beings generally are limited in the amount of discomfort and stress they can tolerate. As discomfort and stress increases, your willpower will probably decrease. Many of us know this from experience. It is typical for people who are on a diet, who have stop smoking, to lose their willpower when they encounter hardships, such as unemployment, sickness or death of a family member, etc. This usually results in the dieter gaining back his weight, the ex-smoker may resume smoking once again, etc.

The suggestions you give yourself unconsciously, or consciously, can increase or decrease your willpower. The idea here is to try to become aware of the suggestions that you give yourself. That is what are you telling yourself or what are you thinking? You can make a list on paper or in your mind in this regard. Then try to separate the counterproductive or negative suggestions, from the neutral or positive suggestions. Try to replace the negative suggestions with suggestions or imagery that is positive, but it can also be realistic. For example, you do not have to tell yourself that you are the smartest person in the world, but you can tell yourself that you have more than enough intellectual ability to complete the task that you are working on. Telling yourself anything or imaging anything in your mind that helps you complete the tasks related to your problem solving effort should be the goal. Each individual will probably arrive at different conclusions in this regard, but the trial and error process, coupled with creative thinking is the best strategy. The idea to keep in mind is that certain thoughts and imagery will reduce your willpower, and other thoughts and imagery will increase your willpower.

Subtopic: Social-Power

Social-power, based on the way I am using the terminology, is the ability to influence the thoughts and actions of other people, especially in relation to your problem-solving efforts. Social-power is essentially the result of the inhibiting or facilitating effect of the way society perceives you, in terms of your formal and informal credentials, your resources, your perceived abilities, your social skills, and many other factors. Social-power can be thought of as social status in relation to your problem-solving efforts. In the following paragraphs I am using social-power and social status as synonyms.

Almost everybody has some social-power, but the quantity varies tremendously from one individual to another. Some examples will clarify this concept. If you are an unknown artist, your paintings will usually have relatively little value, regardless of the quality of the work, because of your status in the artistic community. Just the opposite would hold true for a famous artist, such an artist would probably obtain high prices, even if he submitted a few paintings that were poorly done, because of his high social status in the artistic community. Another example is, if you are a new employee, and your boss and fellow workers do not like you, and they do not respect you, you will have little social power in this situation. If you had a problem in such a job, you would probably have difficulty solving it, if you needed the co-operation or help of your boss or fellow workers. On the other hand, if you found employment elsewhere, where everyone valued your skills, abilities, and liked you very much, you would have more social power in this situation. Other examples are, if you are a writer, poet, scientist, and you are unknown, you will have great difficulty getting your work published, because you have little social power. Just the opposite would be the case with a famous writer, poet, or scientist.

Certain individuals have great difficulty solving their problems because they have very little social power. Examples are poor people, especially if they do not speak English well, which may necessitate social welfare personnel to solve problems for them. Children and teenagers are another example, which often necessitates parental intervention to solve their problems. People that are subject to prejudicial discrimination will generally have less social power, than they would otherwise have.

The ability to solve typical life problems, such as finding employment, especially in relation to the amount of salary, appears to be very much related to social power. Of course, ability, knowledge, skills, work habits, are very important for finding and maintaining employment. However, social power will greatly influence how ability, knowledge, skills and work habits are interpreted. Positive attributes in an individual without much social power, might be interpreted in a way that would result in a low level job with a low salary. An individual with the same attributes, but with much social power, might be perceived as worthy of a high status job, and a high salary.

The quality of service that people obtain from store clerks, service providers, professionals, and experts, can be greatly influenced by their social power. One's ability to obtain funding for a problem solving project, whether it is a scientific, industrial or personal project, can be influenced by social power.

There are different types of social power. For example, a famous movie star may have great social power, and have the capability of influencing movie producers, and the general public. However, if this famous movie star tried to write and publish a paper on nuclear physics, in a scientific journal, he might fail, even if the article was of high-quality, because are hypothetical movie star does not have social power in the scientific community. However, the social power, which was obtained from the role of a movie star, might have at least some influence in getting the article published in a scientific journal, but probably not very much. That is social power from one type of social role or employment is not necessarily transferable to dissimilar roles and situations. However, when approximate similarity is involved, social power is more likely to be transferable. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that there is usually a generalized component to social power, especially in relation to high status occupations, wealth, and family background. This can affect every area of a person’s life, including the ability to solve many types of problems.

Problem solving efforts that do not involve much assistance or cooperation from others are not affected, one way or the other, by social power. For example, losing weight, building a cabinet, assembling a computer, are not significantly affected by social power, especially if you have your own funding.

However, social power is probably one of the most important factors in most major problem solving efforts in science, engineering, and business. Individuals put in charge of such projects are primarily selected because of their social power. If they do not have the technical or scientific knowledge to solve the problem themselves, they will usually act as a director, and obtain individuals that have expertise needed to actually solve the problem. All of this raises the question: what do you do if you do not have enough social power.

Subtopic: How to Increase Your Social-Power

There are many ways that people can increase their social power, but this is not necessarily easy. I will list the easier strategies first followed by the more difficult methods. The easiest method is to develop a friendly, cooperative and helpful attitude and create positive working relationships and friendships. The more people that know you, especially high status individuals, such as potential employers, the higher your social power will be. Forming various types of relationships with people that can help you solve your problems or obtain your goals will increase your social power even more. This will lead to more desirable results if people get to know your positive qualities and abilities.

Dressing in a manner that conveys success might have some impact on your social power, especially if the problem you are trying to solve relates to obtaining employment. Investing in a wardrobe of good close might help some people in terms of obtaining more social power.

Another strategy is to work with individuals that have social power, in relation to your problem solving efforts. For example, if you are planning to carry out a series of experiments involving physics, but you do not have the formal credentials, to obtain funding, or to get your work published, you can try to find a physicist who has the formal qualifications to work with you. The same idea can be applied to many types of problems.

If you have ample financial resources, you can hire individuals with the appropriate qualifications to work with you. If you do not have abundant financial resources, the best solution might be to try to work out some type of agreement, where you jointly work on a project, but this might be difficult to negotiate, because people with social power, usually want to work with other people that have social power, or money to pay their fee

Another strategy of obtaining more social power is to develop knowledge and skills of various types. This includes, social skills, technical skills, general knowledge, and knowledge and ability that relates to your problem solving efforts.

Obtaining degrees of various types, such as a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, and a Ph.D. can certainly increase your social power. Any type of legitimate certificate of achievement, even from a technical school, can also help in this regard. In general, the higher the status of the institution that grants the degree or certificate the better, from the perspective of social power.

Formal licensing of any type will also increase your social power; the higher the status of the license, the better. However, almost any type of legitimate license indicating knowledge, skills or authority will be helpful in raising your social power.

Opening a business, especially one that employs professionals, can dramatically raise your social power. (However, opening a business, especially with salaried employees, is extremely risky, and has a very high probability of failing.) Increasing your job status, and/or financial resources can also increase your social power.

The writing process can also help increase your social power. Writing high-quality documents to funding agencies, potential employers, and articles for publication can have some impact. Any published work you have will have some impact on your social power. However, if you do not have much social power to start out with, it is extremely difficult to get an article or book published. A method of increasing your chances of getting material published is to work with one or more individuals that have more social power than you have. That is try to work with an established writer, or a professional in a specific field, who has formal credentials. Another alternative is to publish your work on the Internet, such as on your own web site, but this might not raise your social power nearly as much as getting your work published in the conventional way. However, if the work is of good quality it might increase your social power.

Very often social status or social power can be increased in stages. For example, the educational process raises an individual’s social power, as he or she progressively completes various levels of academic achievement. On the job, as an employee develops relationships with other workers, his social status will increase in that environment. If he develops additional skills, and experience, his social power will increase even more. If he seeks another job, he might have more social power than he started out with, because of his job experience.

Subtopic: Intellectual-Power

I am defining intellectual power as the ability to carry out the intellectual tasks in your problem solving efforts. This can include general understanding of the problems you are attempting to solve, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and skills. In general, the more scientific and technical knowledge, the better you will be at problem-solving. Knowledge of the human behavior sciences, writing and communications is also extremely important for most types of problem solving. Computer skills and Internet searching are perhaps the most important skill.

However, if you have ample financial resources, or have adequate sources of funding or a high-level of social power, intellectual power may not be very important for your problem solving efforts. That is you can higher experts and technicians to carry out tasks that you do not know how to do. This is certainly not unusual. There are some athletes that are lacking in basic linguistic skills, but they create well-written books that get published, with the aid of ghostwriters. There are people that build magnificent buildings, but they know little or nothing about structural engineering or architecture, which they do by hiring architects, engineers, and other experts. This is even done sometimes by working-class and middle-class individuals, when they have a home or furniture built to order. With industrial and major scientific projects, generally no individual has all the knowledge (intellectual power) needed to complete the project. However, there should be at least one or two individuals that have detailed knowledge of the overall project, and the social power to direct others working on the project. This is not always the case. Often, industrial projects are directed by individuals that do not have the detailed knowledge (intellectual power) to totally understand the project, but they have a high level of social power. This can lead to poor decisions, inefficiency, and many problems, and failures. This difficulty can be partly rectified by extensive training of individuals directing a project, but such training is very time-consuming, and difficult.

However, whatever your situation, a detailed but non-technical understanding of the problem can be quite helpful even if you are hiring others to perform the intellectual and technical tasks. The more you know in this regard the better the results will be. If you do not have much money and have little social power, you would have to increase your intellectual power, which is discussed in the following subtopic.

Subtopic: How to Increase Your Intellectual Power

The answer to this question is to study the types of problems you frequently encounter. This will indicate the material that you have to study. For example, if you own your own business and you frequently encounter management problems, then study books that deal with management problems. Even self-help books can be quite helpful, and they are generally easy to read, and do not require a technical background. Taking formal or informal classes that deal with management problems and how to run a small business will also be helpful. The same idea applies to other types of problems. That is, search for various types of books that deal with your problems and goals, including self-help books. Consider the possibility of taking formal or informal classes. Also search the Internet for information about your problems and goals, and study any useful material you find.

I have found from my own experience that a technical knowledge of the physical and social sciences, mathematics, computer technology and writing can help with solving most problems. This type of general knowledge, allows you to read and understand highly technical literature. However, it is generally not practical to attempt to develop a background of this nature, just to increase your problem solving ability, because it takes many years, and usually starts in childhood and continues throughout adult life. On the other hand, if you already have such a background developing it further can be quite fruitful. If you do not, acquiring good writing and computer skills, and at least some general knowledge in the physical and social sciences will probably be helpful. However, the best strategy for most people is to focus their reading, and studies, on the specific types of problems that they expect to be dealing with.

Subtopic: Physical-Power

I am defining the term physical-power, for this text, to mean the physical strength, alertness, and endurance needed to carry out problem-solving efforts. There are of course some problems that require some degree of physical strength. For example, if your problem is a house that was damaged by a hurricane, and you want to make the repairs yourself, you will need the physical strength and endurance to carry large pieces of wood, and remove debris. If your problem involves athletics, such as competition on a track team, obviously endurance and strength is essential.

However, most of the problems we face in life, in business, science, and engineering do not require very much physical strength. However, many of the tasks we face in our efforts to solve problems and obtain goals involve the ability to remain alert, and a related type of endurance. This is a type of physical power, based on the way I am using the terminology. This type of physical power is important for intellectual tasks, and it will affect your ability to learn. The more of this type of physical power you have, the better you will be at learning and performing intellectual tasks.

A major component of physical power is endurance. There are different types of endurance, that relate to the specific activity in question. The most obvious examples are endurance with walking or jogging long distances. Such activity produces various physiological strains on our body, which if done in a controlled way, and not to an excess level, is actually healthy. Another type of endurance involves sitting for long periods of time. Sitting also places various physiological strains on our body, which are of course totally different than the physiological strains produced by physical activity. The physiological strain of sitting can also be healthy if it consists of a brief rest period from strenuous physical activity.

Thus, all types of problem solving and goal attainment efforts involve some type of physical-power, which can be divided into three categories, which are as follows:

· Physical-power for goals that involve muscular activity, such as athletic objectives, building large items such as furniture and buildings

· Physical-power for goals which are primarily intellectual in nature, such as reading, writing, thinking, operating a computer, performing mathematical calculations. Of course, muscles are involved in all these activities, but to a much lesser extent then the above.

· Physical-power that relates to goals that require light activities, such as cooking, housecleaning, walking, shopping, driving a car

Very often when we are experiencing difficulty in completing specific tasks, such as writing a report, reading a book, painting the house, running 3 miles, the cause is related to physiological strain associated with the activity. Strain in such cases signals our brain in various ways, which result in discomfort. This is essentially a built-in mechanism that is trying to stop the strain, by stopping us from the strain-full activity. This happens to a greater extent when we do not have enough physical power to engage in the task, especially if we have been doing it for many hours, without adequate rest.

In general, your motivation and ability to actually carry out plans and related activities to solve a problem or obtain a goal will be greatly influenced by your physical-power. If you do not have much physical power, it will take a considerable amount of effort to carry out the activities needed to obtain most goals. In general, the more physical power you have the better.

Subtopic: How to Increase Your Physical-Power

In this heading, I will explain how to increase your physical-power, by first explaining some general principles, and I will start from the obvious, and proceed to the less obvious.

In general, good health habits, including adequate sleep, a well-balanced diet without excess calories, and regular physical exercise will improve your physical- power, and ability to carry out the activities needed to solve problems.

There are a number of ways that you can increase your physical power, but the methods depend on the specific activities involved. For various types of physical activities, such as jogging or weightlifting, gradually increasing the length of time you engage in the activity, over a period of weeks or months will increase your physical-power. This can also include gradually increasing the speed, and/or weight involved over a period of weeks and months. Similar principles also apply to individuals that are recovering from illness that involved prolonged bed rest, which involves the gradual increase of daily physical activities over days and weeks.

Practicing any activity on an ongoing basis will usually increase your ability to engage in that activity, which will also involve the development of the needed physical-power. This is obvious with heavy physical activities, but it applies to all activities to varying degrees, including intellectual activities, such as reading, writing, and working with the computer.

Another important way of increasing your physical-power or using it more effectively is to balance the activities you engage in, which will increase your overall effectiveness. This involves periodically switching from one activity to the other. This will be explained in the following paragraphs.

The important idea to keep in mind in this regard is each activity produces a specific type of physiological strain coupled with various benefits. I will explain this by starting with an example that is not so obvious, which is sleep. Sleep causes a very significant physiological strain on the body. During sleep muscle and bone mass deteriorate and physical strength is reduced. The strength of the heart and lungs are also reduced, especially in terms of physical endurance. In addition, there is strain placed on various portions of the skin during sleep, which can result in bedsores in some cases. We can see these destructive effects of sleep in people who have been bedridden for a long period of time. In spite of the destructive effect of sleep, we cannot live without it. Inadequate sleep has a very destructive effect on our health, and our ability to successfully engage in daily activities. Sitting also has a destructive effect that is similar, but less severe then sleep. Physical activity counteracts the negative effects of sleep and sitting. That is physical activity increase bone and muscle mass, and the functionality of the heart and lungs, and physical strength and endurance. In addition, sleep often produces varying degrees of grogginess after awakening, which can be alleviated by engaging in mild physical exercise. However, exercise, and similar physical activities can at a certain point, of intensity, and duration, produce fatigue, grogginess, and muscle soreness. When you are exercising you are destroying some of your weaker body cells and to a lesser extent, some of your healthy body cells as well. While you are exercising you are depleting energy, losing minerals, consuming vital biochemicals. That is during exercise you are in effect breaking down your body in certain ways, which is different than the breakdown process that takes place during sleep. The adverse effects of this break down process can be relieved by sleep. The adverse effects, if not very severe, can also be relieved by sitting in a chair and engaging in sedentary activities, such as reading, writing, and studying. However, when exercise is carried to extreme levels, it can produce generalized fatigue, coupled with an inability to concentrate, which limit the activities that could be engaged in, and sleep would be the ideal remedy.

The idea here is that sleep, rest, physical exercise, and every other activity have adverse and beneficial effects. If your sleep, rest, exercise, and other activities are properly balanced the adverse effects will not be significant, but the benefits will be highly significant.

In general, each activity produces various types of physiological and psychological strain that results in discomfort if continued beyond a certain point. I am calling this concept: activity related fatigue. That is each activity produces its own unique type of fatigue. Based on this concept, there is sleep-related-fatigue, sitting-related-fatigue, exercise-related-fatigue, jogging-related-fatigue, walking-related- fatigue, reading-related-fatigue, writing-related-fatigue, computer- related-fatigue, etc. The idea suggested by this concept, is simply to rotate the activities you engage in, in such a way that fatigue from one activity is alleviated while engaging in another activity. This strategy,coupled with the other ideas presented above, will greatly increase your physical power,in relation to your problem solving efforts.

Subtopic: Legal-Power

I am defining legal power for this text, as the legal right or authority to implement actions or make changes that relate to your problem solving efforts. Some examples will clarify this concept. If you are under 18, you do not have the legal authority to deal with most medical problems that involve surgery. Parental consent is usually required in most localities in the United States. If your problem is a large tree that is blocking the sun on your home, you do not have the legal authority to cut down the tree if it is on someone else's property. If you are a lower level manager in a company you work for, and you find an excellent potential employee, you probably do not have the legal right to hire him, unless that was written into your job description. If you face a major problem getting to work because of severe rush-hour traffic on a bridge you must cross, and you decide that you want to build a larger bridge, to ease the traffic, your major problem would be legal authority. Even if you had all the money required, and was willing to donate the completed bridge to the government for free, you still could not do it, unless you obtained the official agreement of appropriate government agencies. In general, there are many problems that we all face, and many of us could solve, but we do not have the legal authority to do it. This is especially the case with governmental failures and problems.

Subtopic: How to Increase Your Legal-Power

Generally, when you do not have legal power to carry out the actions or make changes to solve a problem, there are a number of options, including the following, which are as follows:

· Obtain permission from the individuals that have legal authority or power: For example, an individual under 18 can obtain parental consent to deal with medical problems. If an individual believes that a new bridge is required to ease rush-hour traffic, at least theoretically, he can try to obtain legal authority to build a new bridge from appropriate government agencies. In general, legal authority can sometimes be obtained by educating the individuals that have legal authority, and/or by negotiating with them.

· Use the political process to modify or change the law: For example, in the case of the bridge and the problem with rush-hour traffic, mentioned above, organizing people with advertising campaigns, and then engaging in an educational and political process to obtain more supporters, can sometimes be a successful strategy. When an adequate number of supporters are obtained, the objective, such as building a new bridge, can be obtained by educating and pressuring elected officials and/or by running for political office.

· Solving the problem by circumventing the legal issues: For example, an alternative way of solving the rush-hour traffic problem on the bridge mentioned above, is to try and circumvent the problem, which will solve it on a personal level. This could involve arriving at work before the morning rush-hour traffic, and leaving before the evening rush-hour traffic. Alternatively is you could arrive at work a couple of hours later, and leave work a couple of hours later, after the rush hour has dissipated. Another alternative is to try to find a different route to work that is not as crowded as the bridge.

In general, various legal problems can be legitimately circumvented by careful thinking, changing your strategy, or applying technology, which generally involves using a different method, strategy or path to a solution or goal.

· Negotiate a solution to the problem: For example, if the problem is a large tree on your neighbor’s property that looks like it will sooner or later collapse on your house, you probably can negotiate a solution to the problem.

In general, negotiation can be a useful strategy to resolve legal problems, and it can sometimes be used more effectively by educating the individual(s) you are negotiating with. For example, educating the neighbor about the hazard with the tree, especially in terms of damage to his property, and potential liability damage to your life and property, might make negotiation easier. Another way of making negotiation easier is to be willing to accept less than an ideal solution (or accepting the short end of the stick), which is sometimes worthwhile when it saves time, effort, or money, or prevents serious conflict or a legal dispute in court. For example, offering to pay for removing the hazardous tree, or paying for reinforcing braces for the tree, might make the neighbor more willing to cooperate.

· Obtain a lawyer and try to fight your case in court: For example, with the above problem, (a large tree on your neighbor’s property that looks like it will sooner or later collapse on your house) if your neighbor refuses to remove the tree or negotiate with you, the problem can probably be solved in court. In general, this requires a lawyer, and very often it is not worth while, because of the expenses involved, especially if there are other reasonable alternatives. When suing for money, it is usually only worthwhile if the lawyer accepts the case on a contingency basis, or if you are likely to win a large sum of money that is more than adequate to pay your legal expenses.

· Gain legal authority: For example, the above problem involving the tree might also be solved by gaining legal authority to cut down the tree by purchasing the neighbors house, if he is willing to sell it.

Subtopic: The Law in General and Problem-Solving

The law is so complicated, that it is not always apparent what a violation is, especially in business. Laws are constantly being changed, and what could be even more confusing is the interpretation of what constitutes a violation of law. Interpretations can sometimes change. Actions that were considered lawful at one point in time can sometimes be reinterpreted as violations of law at another point in time. A simple example of this happened in New York City. This in effect involved reinterpretation of the loitering laws. This law was applied to people sitting or standing outside of their workplaces and the buildings where people reside. The original purpose of the loitering law, the way I understand it, was to stop individuals that were loitering with the possible intent of committing an illegal act, such as buying or selling elicit drugs.

In general with most business and major industrial problems, a lawyer should be consulted to be certain that the planned actions to solve the problem, and resulting solution is legal, and to be certain that it does not increase the risk of liability lawsuits. This may not always be feasible for a small business, because of the expensive legal fees involved.

A difficult idea to understand, is that the actions to solve a problem can be highly ethical, and fair to all concerned, but it still can be illegal, or result in legal problems of one type or another. For example, a small business might have a problem with excess work and a solution may be to hirer a couple of secretaries. This certainly does not sound like a major legal issue, but in many cases it might be a serious legal problem. If the newly hired secretaries increase the total number of employees, over a specific number, a different set of law might apply to the entire business. If the boss did not know this, he might be in violation of many laws that usually do not apply to small businesses. In some cases, legal issues can be avoided by solving a problem in a different way. With the above example, instead of hiring additional secretaries, the work could be contracted out to another company.

Subtopic: Increase Your Legal Knowledge

In general, a basic knowledge of the law can be helpful with many types of problems. It is probably useful to learn the legal issues associated with the types of problems you frequently encounter. Knowledge of your legal rights and a general sense of the law can be helpful. This can be useful sometimes if you are informally appealing a case against an organization, such as a basic case of discrimination, or a denial of benefits from an insurance company. With complicated legal issues, especially in relation to business problems, it is probably necessary to higher a lawyer.

An important skill in relation to legal issues is writing and documentation. This is the case whether you are handling a legal problem yourself, or you are hiring a lawyer, or a team of lawyers, the final result will probably be based on the quality of the documentation that you can provide. Developing good writing skills can be extremely helpful in this regard. When dealing with legal issues, it is usually necessary to explain all relevant information that supports your case in detail.

A useful methodology that can be helpful with legal issues, explaining your case to lawyers, and presenting your case, was already mentioned in relation to obtaining funding. I am presenting the methodology here in more detail, as follows:

· Send copies of all of the documentation that supports your case: Explain the significance of these documents in both writing and oral conversations, if the documents are important to your case.

· Engage in a series of face-to-face discussions and/or detailed telephone conversations explaining your case

· Send a series of short written documents explaining the arguments supporting your case, over a period of days, weeks, or months: The contents of these documents should also be explained in oral conversations whenever possible.

· Present at least one long detailed report explaining your case and the supporting arguments: The report can be created by writing a brief one or two page summary explaining the most important aspects of your case, which should be at the very beginning of the report (page 1) This should be followed, (starting on page 2 or 3) by many pages detailing your arguments and other information related to your case. This can involve placing the most important information, (after the summary) in the beginning of your report, and progressively presenting the less important information. The information in the report should be reinforced with one or more conversations, which can be face-to-face or on the phone.

· To obtain the most from this effort, all of the information and documentation that you present should be honest, and focused on legal and logical arguments. In addition, all your information should be persuasive on an intellectual and emotional level. When dealing with people and organizations decisions are often only partly based on official rules or laws. That is decisions are often greatly influenced by other factors, including concepts of fairness, as well as emotional factors. If people believe on an emotional level that you were treated unfairly, or deserve a break, you have a better chance of winning. This is especially the case, if they get to know you, like you at some level, and empathize with you, which can be very important. However, when people argue their case or engage in negotiation, often the image they present is very combative, which results in just the opposite of the above. That is the image that maybe conveyed, which you want to avoid at all cost, is an unlikable individual that is requesting something that he is not ethically entitled to, but may or may not be legally entitled to. Thus, you can win or lose your case partly based on positive or adverse emotional feelings and logical arguments. However, you should not try to win your case, solely on logical and emotional arguments. You must provide good legal arguments and supporting evidence, to win your case. This probably also applies to most negotiation, but to a lesser extent. Sometimes negotiation does not really involve law, and when it does, it can be of minimal to moderate importance. In such cases logical and emotional arguments and persuasion might be even more important then legal arguments.

If you are working with a lawyer, all documentation that you write or obtained from other sources should be thoroughly reviewed by the lawyer.

Generally speaking if you are planning to hire a lawyer to help you with a legal problem, you should determine if it is worth the time, money, and effort. For accidents and malpractice cases it is often quite sensible to hire a lawyer, on a contingency basis. With business problems, especially in medium-size and large organizations, the fee of the lawyer(s) might be a highly cost-effective investment. However, in many other cases, such as with personal lawsuits against another individual, legal action with a lawyer may not be a sensible strategy, because of the high fees involved. In addition, such lawsuits can often resulting counter lawsuits, which can cost you a considerable sum of money. A similar situation applies to small businesses, where legal action with a lawyer is generally not cost effective, with perhaps some exceptions of course. However as stated above, hiring a lawyer for some small business procedures, to avoid legal problems, can sometimes be very cost-effective.

In many cases that involve legal disputes between individuals or small businesses the best strategy often is to settle the conflict outside of court with out any lawyers. Very often it is worthwhile to accept less than an ideal agreement, rather than hiring a lawyer and taking the case to court.

Subtopic: Writing skills and problem solving

The ability to write skillfully is another important problem solving resource. If you do not have good writing skills, the quickest way to improve your ability is to learn how to write with the computer. This should involve word processor software with a grammar checker, such as Microsoft Word. Most grammar checkers can be set to various levels of difficulty and style. Microsoft Word's grammar checker has this capability. The grammar checker in Microsoft Word immediately indicates a grammar error, by underlining the words with a green line. This allows for immediate feedback, and the trial and error learning can be incorporated into your practice sessions. Another advantage of learning how to write well with the computer and Microsoft Word is you can determine the precise grammar rules, when you make a grammatical error, by right clicking with the mouse on the error. Then a dialogue box opens, and then click on Grammar, then click on Explain, and a yellow box will open that will explain the relevant grammar rule.

The usefulness of the Microsoft grammar checker, as a learning device, can be greatly enhanced by deliberately duplicating the grammar errors you make. The duplication of the error must be made using a sentence that is different from the sentence you originally made the error in. The idea here is, if you understand the grammar rule that you violated, you will be able to duplicate the error, and you will obtain the same explanation from the Microsoft Word grammar checker, each time you deliberately produce the error. If you do not understand the grammar rule you violated, you will not be able to deliberately duplicate the same error. When this happens, use the trial and error process until you can consistently duplicate the error. This effort can be coupled with the assistance of a knowledgeable individual or a grammar book, if necessary.

(Incidentally, the deliberate duplication of errors is a general problem solving technique that can help you improve your writing, as well as your ability to solve certain types of problems. There are situations where you can develop the knowledge needed to rectify errors or malfunctions in equipment, by deliberately duplicating errors and malfunctions in a controlled away. This technique is sometimes used in science and engineering to develop the insight needed to correct and prevent errors and malfunctions. The general idea is if you can understand an adverse problem, regardless whether it is a simple grammar error, a family argument, a major war, a malfunctioning spacecraft, a software bug, you have a better chance of solving the problem and preventing it from reoccurring if you understand it. Thus, the next time that you are faced with an adverse situation, try to employ this technique, if it is feasible to do so. The technique can be especially useful when you make an error with the computer. )

Another important strategy to become a skillful writer is to constantly check your documents for comprehension, by having people check your work. Even if they are not particularly skilled at writing, you can assess your work, by determining if they were able to comprehend your material.

Generally, to develop good writing skills requires ongoing practice. This can involve writing, and rewriting two or three pages many times over, with the goal of making repeated improvements. All of this work is much easier and more pleasant, if you pick a topic that you are interested in writing about.

There are many resources on the Internet that are focused on the development of writing skills. You can conduct an Internet search with the following terms to find these websites:

Writing with the computer,

Microsoft Word's grammar checker

How to use Microsoft Word's grammar checker

Basic writing skills

Intermediate writing skills

Technical writing skills

How to develop good writing skills

Ideally, all of the above should be incorporated with formal classroom studies in writing.

Topic: A Few Helpful Strategies for Real World Problem Solving Involving Communications

Various types of communication skills, including writing, are useful problem solving resources. Most major problem solving efforts involve a considerable degree of communication. There are very few problems and goals that can be obtained without communication, except for the simpler types of problems that can be carried out by a single individual. Communication is discussed in various sections of this book, but in the following paragraphs I provide a few useful ideas.

A very useful and simple communication strategy is to use the computer, word processor software and writing, to send out a number of similar letters, to relevant individuals. This can be transmitted by conventional mail, but you can also use fax and/or e-mail, but conventional mail is probably more effective in most cases. The big advantage with this strategy is it gives you the ability to write one letter, and easily make as many copies as you need, and mail it to large number of individuals. For example, if you are seeking employment, you can write one good letter and a resume, and print 50 to 100 copies, and mail them out to potential employers. Ideally, each letter should be addressed to the individual that will be responsible for hiring you. It is also relatively easy to make slight modifications in each letter, so it fits the requirements of a specific company. This can include the address of each company.

This idea (a number of similar letters) can also be very useful when you have a complaint, especially when it has been ignored. For example, if you have a housing or air pollution complaint, you can easily make 10 or 20 copies of a complaint letter, and send it out to a number of relevant agencies. When this is done, it is often best to indicate that you are sending copies to multiple agencies. It is sometimes advantageous to invest additional time and money and send some of these letters out as registered mail.

A personal Internet web site can be used as an excellent communication device in some cases. For example, if you want to convey information about your self to potential employers, friends or relatives, you can set up a personal website, that conveys the information. This can include work experience, your knowledge and skills, your hobbies, and any other information you want to convey. Web address of your web site can be placed on your business card, resume, cover letter, or any other appropriate source. One of the primary advantages of a personal website is the ability to provide information about your self without burdening individuals that are not interested in the information. You can just make the Web address available, and people can read whatever they are interested in, whenever they decide to do so.

The information you put on a personal web site ideally should be convincing or relatively apparent in nature. Reinforcing your statements with photographs, sound, or video can be quite helpful in this regard. For example, if you are interested in athletic activities, and you want other individuals to know of this, you can show photographs of yourself involved in these activities.

Another useful communication strategy to assist with problem solving is to set up a web site that deals with a specific type of problem. This can involve a bulletin board, where people present their ideas and experiences about a certain type of problem. It can also include e-mail addresses, to facilitate correspondence.

The above idea can possibly be converted into a self-help group, dealing with a specific type of problem. Self-help groups, or any type of discussion, group can be a productive way of communicating, in some cases. However discussion groups of any type can be nonproductive, or even counterproductive. When a group is productive, people come up with useful ideas. This might involve various group members stimulating each others creative thinking. In addition, group members that have specific knowledge, skills, and abilities can provide others with assistance. When the group is neutral in productivity, it may just serve as a means of social contact with others, or a form of entertainment in a sense. When the group is counterproductive, people will focus excessively on failures, problems, pain, discomfort, without any attempt to remedy the difficulties.

Subtopic: Computer Skills

Computer skills are one of the most important problem solving resources. This should be apparent from the previous topics. Thus, I will discuss some learning strategies in this section that will help you advance your computer skills to higher levels.

Some people develop computer skills relatively quickly, and there are many individuals that have varying degrees of difficulty with computer operation. People that try to master the computer in the same way that they learned most subjects in school will generally experienced many difficulties. In school, we listened and took notes, and prepared ourselves to take a test. In most cases, the learning process was limited to an exercise in written and spoken language. Computer operation is a skill, and it is not possible to develop a skill solely by reading or listening to instructions.

The most effective way of advancing your skills with the computer, is to use a number of learning strategies, with a focus on trial and error learning. Generally, it's a good idea to take a brief look at the menus in a software package, and click on the various listings in the menu, to see what happens. Ideally, reading the instructions will help with this process, because you will have some idea about each function. However, generally it is not feasible to read all of the instructions that is provided with a software package, because it is usually well over 200 pages. In addition, most software instructions are either poorly written, or written in technical language, and may not be understandable, unless you are already knowledgeable in computers and are familiar with the software that you are dealing with. However, if the instructions are used in a step-by-step basis, coupled with the trial and error learning process, your results will probably be successful.

Nevertheless, the primary way to learn how to use software and the computer is to persist with trial and error learning, which should be coupled with ongoing practice. This should be coupled with periodic reading of relevant portions of the instructions, when you are not able to figure out a specific operation. Technical support by telephone, or e-mail, can be very helpful when you get stuck, and cannot figure out how to perform the operation you want to carry out.

In addition, developing an understanding of the similar functions of software,will help you learn new software packages quickly. That is most software packages have a number of similarities. For example, with the Windows operating system, the cut and paste function is similar for most software packages. Many software packages have a number of toolbars, which are usually available by clicking on view, and then toolbars. Many software packages have a primary toolbar with the words: File, Edit, View, Insert, Tools, Help.

Many people who do not understand computers are quite fearful or concerned about pressing the wrong key, or clicking on the wrong icon. This concern prevents them from using the trial and error process, and from learning how to operate a computer. The idea to understand is that you probably could not damage any software, or the computer, by making errors, unless you deleted a software component, which is highly unlikely. Generally it is impossible to delete software components when you are trying to use a software package that is opened, and operating.

The primary idea here is the difference between individuals that develop expert computer skills, and those who have difficulty, is the difference in the learning strategy that they are employing. If you have any doubts about the above, speak to highly skilled individuals and computer experts, about how they learn to use new software packages. Keep in mind that there are dozens of new software packages that are constantly being introduced, and if anyone tried to read the instruction manuals from cover to cover they would have thousands of pages to read.

If you understand the above, and accept it, you are on your way to becoming a highly skilled computer user, if you are not already an expert.

Subtopic: Creativity Skills are Important Problem Solving Resources

Your creative abilities are important problem solving resources. This is especially the case when you are dealing with problems that have no apparent solution.

Actually, creativity involves many skills and methods that are discussed throughout this book in various forms. In addition, creativity is discussed in detail in the following topic.

Topic: Introduction to Creativity Techniques and Problem-Solving

Subtopic: Conventional Creativity Techniques

There are a large number of creativity techniques in the literature, and there are many books on the subject. Many of the creativity techniques are based on variations of brainstorming. Most people are probably familiar with brainstorming and variations of this technique. Generally, brainstorming involves a group of people suggesting various ideas, and an individual writes the ideas on a blackboard. Other variations of this technique include, people typing their ideas onto a computer, where the ideas are presented on a screen that everyone can see. Another variation can involve individuals anonymously typing in their ideas on an Internet chat board.

Other creative concepts involve the idea of seeing something from different perspectives. For example, what do you think of situation X.? How would group X look from a different culture, such as African, Chinese, Japanese, American Indian, etc. How would X look under a microscope. How would X look from the point of view of an insect, a microbe, a cat, a dog, an elephants, your friends, your adversaries, your competitors, your customers, your boss? Another creativity concept involves breaking from conventional ways of doing things, or breaking rules, which does not imply doing anything illegal or unethical. Generally, this involves experimenting with nontraditional ways of doing things, with the hope of obtaining unique solutions, and discovering more efficient methods and strategies. This technique is based on the idea that we are very often trapped by our culture, customs, experience, and belief system, which can be circumvented by experimenting with nontraditional strategies, and methods. Of course, this is likely to lead to many failures, but that is unimportant, because it might lead to one major new concept or method, which can be a very valuable discovery.

The general rule with these techniques is to consider almost any idea, no matter how silly it may sound initially. The principle here is silly ideas can sometimes be converted to sensible ideas, or they can simply be eliminated from the list of possibilities. Sometimes silly ideas, stimulates someone's creative thinking. This can involve asking why the idea is silly, which can result in many answers. This can sometimes suggest ways of making the idea practical.

There are a large number of similar techniques; many are variations of the above. Occasionally, such techniques result in sensible ideas, products, advertising jingles, and unforeseen solutions to problems. However, the conventional creativity techniques very often have limited practical utility, especially if there are technical components to the problem, which is usually the case. Where there are no technical limitations, such as finding a new name for a company or product, brainstorming and other creativity techniques might produce very successful results. Nevertheless even with some technical problems some potentially useful results might be obtained occasionally with various brainstorming techniques.

In general, there are usually little or no cost involved with conventional creativity techniques, especially if they are used by an individual for personal problems and goals. In business, it may or may not be cost-effective to specifically arrange a meeting for a brainstorming session. However, such meetings can inform all that there is a problem, and it can motivate people to work on obtaining a solution. Thus, even if creative solutions are not found, the social impact of the brainstorming session can lead to positive results.

Subtopic: The Misconceptions about Creativity

Very often, the impression people have of the creative process is that it represents an instantaneous inspiration, an idea that pops into one’s head. This is primarily mythology that is even perpetuated by some psychology books. However, it is true that the creative process can sometimes start with a flash of inspiration, an idea popping into one’s head. That by itself is not creativity. Many ideas can pop into anyone’s head. To select a set of ideas and to create a new design, a new product or new method is usually a very time-consuming process. Often, it involves teams of experts from different disciplines working together to create an initial design or prototype. This usually involves the trial and error process, experimentation, and many failures, before a successful prototype is created.

Subtopic: What Does All of the Above Suggest About Conventional Creativity Techniques?

The idea to keep in mind is that conventional creativity techniques do have some utility, especially if they are used in an appropriate way, with realistic expectations. For problems, where you are not limited by the laws of nature (physics, chemistry, psychology, sociology) many of the conventional creativity techniques can produce potentially successful results. This is often the case with artistic concepts, ranging from writing novels, poetry, plays, fairy tales, and advertising jingles. In situations where you are limited by the constraints of reality, which applies to most problem solving situations, knowledge of science, technology, rules and regulations, and an understanding of human behavior, is usually required to successfully solve a problem. The conventional creativity techniques can be used along with such knowledge, to stimulate the mind in various ways. The conventional creativity techniques can be used to help us become aware of new alternatives. These techniques can sometimes suggest a new line of reasoning, a new series of experiments, a new way of accomplishing a goal, a new source of information, a category of expert assistance that was previously not considered, etc. In general, the conventional creativity techniques can be used in conjunction with more sophisticated creative methods, and related technical knowledge, to solve complex problems.

In the following paragraphs I discuss a few sophisticated creativity methods that are quite different than brainstorming, and can be used to solve complex real world problems.

A very Important subtopic: A Creativity Method that Often Produces Successful Results, and Which is Widely Used in Industry in Various Forms

Conventional creativity techniques are likely to be more functional when scientific and technical knowledge are applied. For example, if you ask people in a conventional brainstorming session to give their ideas on unique shapes for building a new type of airplane, you will probably obtain a large number of suggestions that defy the laws of aerodynamics. That is you will probably end up with dozens of geometric forms that could not possibly be used for an airplane. However, if you follow the following five-step method you will probably get excellent results. Keep in mind that the unique shapes for building a new type of airplane is used as an example, and the following five-step method can be used for almost any type of problem or goal.

1) Clearly write a document stating that you want new designs for airplanes that have unusual shapes. You indicate in the document that the new designs must be for airplanes that will actually fly well.

2) Then you send out copies of the document to a relatively large number of aeronautical engineers, and companies that design and manufacture airplanes. You make an effort to send out copies of the document to companies and engineers that have different design philosophies.

3) You offer some type of reward for the best design(s), such as money, or a contract to build the new airplane.

4) When you obtain the plans for the different designs, you evaluate the different alternatives, with expert assistance. This can involve building scale models and carrying out experimentation to evaluate the best designs.

5) Make the selection of the airplane that you plan to consider for full-scale prototype development, and/or for possible full-scale production.

With this five-step method, you would almost certainly obtain many useful results. This method would usually be successful because it involves experts and companies that have experience designing and building airplanes. An even more important factor is it allows for the days, weeks and months needed to design airplanes. Requesting designs from experts with different design philosophies will result in more creative results. If you ask experts that have similar design philosophies you might end up with almost identical designs. This by itself is a very important principle. Step 3 is also quite important. Providing rewards for the work involved with the creative process will motivate the people to invest the many hours and money required to create new designs.

Thus, conventional brainstorming and creativity techniques do not work very well, because they do not generally provide the above components, especially, documentation describing what is needed, experienced experts, days, weeks or months needed to create new solutions and designs, and rewards for creative work.

The above technique I outlined in five steps is of course very widely used in industry, in various forms. For example, to obtain a new design for the World Trade Center involved sending out requests for unique designs to architects, with the goal of obtaining many submissions, and selecting the optimum design. Often government projects involve this technique, such as for the design of new military aircraft. This generally involves rewarding the contract to the company that produced the best design, especially in relation to cost and functionality.

The five-step technique as described above, usually has limited value for small businesses, small-scale science projects, and personal problems, because it is generally not feasible to offer large financial rewards to experts to workout unique ideas and submit them. However, the technique can be applied in a limited and modified way to personal or small business problems. For example, it is possible to consult with many physicians, preferably from different philosophies, and different medical specialties, to obtain alternative ways of treating medical conditions. This of course is very different than asking two or three doctors for second and third opinions, because opinions do not involve the creative process. With this creativity technique you are asking for different methods and solutions to treat a medical problem. This involves collecting as many different methods as possible to treat the problem, and selecting the best choice based on your personal criteria. The same idea can be applied to many situations involving different types of experts, such as architects for building a small one family house.

I am going to extend this five-step method into a sophisticated methodology in the following paragraphs. Specifically, I am going to combine the five-step method with Template Aided Problem Solving, which was previously discussed. (Note, before reading the following paragraphs make sure that you understand the five-step method presented above. If this is not done, the following paragraphs will be very confusing. However, Template Aided Problem Solving is self-explanatory in the following paragraphs, so if you do not remember this method, it will not be a problem.)

The most important principle behind this five-step method, as I am expanding it here, is the initial document with its description, in step one. With this expanded version of the method, an electronic document is used, in any appropriate format, such as CD, DVDR, web site, etc. I am calling this document the creative-criteria-template, which can contain far more than just written text. It can contain hyperlinks to software, web sites, and communication links, diagrams, sound recordings, photographs, video, imbedded spreadsheets, etc.

However, the creation of a creative-criteria-template involves the creativity that develops with the writing process, as previously described in different sections of this book. The creative-criteria-template contains written descriptions and requirements to stimulate creative solutions and designs. The creative-criteria-template can also contain detailed information, technical data, diagrams, questions and statements to stimulate creative thinking. The important idea to understand is the way that the creative-criteria-template is written, with its descriptions and requirements, will determine the nature of the creative results that will ultimately be obtained.

In many situations, the copies of creative-criteria-template should be sent out to not only to experts with different design philosophies, as previously mentioned, but also to experts from different disciplines when feasible. This will produce the best creative results. The number of copies of the creative-criteria-template sent out is also important. The more experts that receive copies of the creative-criteria-template the better.

Ideally, the creative-criteria-template should be placed on a website, where a very large number of experts can see it, and submit potential solutions and designs, which can be done by e-mail, as well as by conventional mail. One of the advantages of a web site, is the nature of the initial creative-criteria-template can be modified based on new information, and designs that were already submitted. A website makes the application of the trial and error process relatively easy.

Creative-criteria-template can also be used for difficult research problems that have no apparent solution, which should ideally involve a web site. When a creative-criteria-template is used for difficult research problems, it ideally should contain all the research information that has already been obtained, which can easily be achieved on a website, by linking to large number of other websites, which could involve millions of web pages. For example, a creative-criteria-template could be created for cancer research perhaps with the following creative requirements and description:

· The goal is to find chemicals that would selectively react with the DNA or RNA of cancer cells, without damaging healthy cells. Alternatively find or genetically engineer viruses that would selectively react with the DNA or RNA of cancer cells. Of course, such reactions, whether it is from chemicals or viruses, would destroy the cancer cells or prevent them from reproducing. An additional alternative would be genetically modified bacteria that would infect cancer cells, but not healthy body cells.

The above would involve chemicals or viruses that would not react with the DNA or RNA of healthy body cells, or bacteria that would not destroy healthy body cells.

Of course this would probably involve a number of different chemicals, genetically modified viruses, and/or bacteria, for the many different types of cancers.

If the above technology is developed it could also be used to attack different types of DNA or RNA from pathogenic viruses and bacteria, such as AIDS, tuberculosis, etc.

The primary objective can be restated from a different perspective as follows: The goal here is actually to develop a technology of selectively destroying or disabling any type of pathogenic DNA or RNA, by creating chemicals, or genetically engineered viruses that would react with the pathogenic DNA or RNA, without harming body cells. (Without reacting with the DNA or RNA of body cells.)

One of the first steps of obtaining this goal would be to work out highly efficient methodology of creating accurate scale models or computer models(in terms of molecular structure) of various segments of pathogenic DNA and RNA. This would involve many models, of the different pathogens including different types of cancer cells. The next step would be to model chemical structures that can react with these DNA and RNA segments.

The above does not provide any solutions or even partial solutions. It just contains questions and statements designed to stimulate the creative thinking of experts that are familiar with biochemistry, genetic engineering, or cancer research. Incidentally, I created these questions and statements with widely accepted concepts from the biological sciences, and they incorporate some establish procedures such as genetic engineering of viruses and bacteria.

The type of creative-criteria-template, described above, would contain a large number of web pages on previously conducted research on DNA, and RNA, especially in relation to cancer cells. It would also contain most of the research data on genetic engineering of viruses and bacteria. Most of this information would be presented in the form of links to websites. In addition it would be links to all research journals and web sites that deal with cancer, RNA, DNA, organic chemistry, drug chemistry in relation to DNA and RNA. It would essentially contain all the needed information for experts that wanted to carry out experimental research within the parameters suggested by the questions and statements on the creative-criteria-template. A web site of this nature ideally should be advertised to experts in various fields, such as cancer researchers, organic chemists, drug companies, cancer research institutions, etc.

Websites of this nature (creative-criteria-template) would of course require one or more individuals, or preferably one or more organizations that would evaluate the resulting suggestions and research papers that would be submitted. The material would then be indexed appropriately, and placed on the web site. This process could continue until enough information was obtained to obtain the solution to the problem. In the case of the example presented above, this would be one or more chemicals, viruses, and/or bacteria that would selectively destroy or disable cancer cells, and possibly other types of pathogens, without damaging healthy body cells.

Websites based on creative-criteria-template of the type described above, could also serve a secondary purpose, specifically as a massive source of information for researchers, students and the general public. Information can also be presented in various formats and at different levels, which allows experts from different disciplines to comprehend the material, as well as the general public.

The concept described above, with creative-criteria-template, on a web site could also be used for typical personal problems and goals that many people face in life. This would involve a web site with a structure similar to the common type of message board found on the Internet, with the following exceptions:

· A very precise detailed description of the problem and the required parameters for desirable solutions would be presented.

· A statement discouraging people from just writing about their feelings, believes and frustrations, because the goal is to obtain potentially useful solutions. (The website can also contain a separate section for the expression of feelings and experiences.)

· Very large amount of information about the problem in general, including links to a large number of websites that provide information that relates directly or indirectly to the problem.

· A Web site of this nature would have a place for people to write detailed and lengthy solutions.

A website of this nature would contain questions, such as the following example:

· What are the most efficient, study and learning strategies (in terms of time and grades) for traditional college courses? Are there different study and learning strategies that work best for the different courses, such as subjects that contain mathematics, writing courses, lecture courses? Give a detailed description.

Subtopic: Creative Researching

What is creative researching? To answer this question it is necessary to discuss conventional researching first. Conventional researching strategy whether it is carried out from books, the library, or the Internet, is generally focused on one research-target, such as a specific topic, or problem. For example, if we need an electrician to deal with a problem of inadequate house wiring, we will search for a local electrician. The research-target is a local electrician. Creative researching, based on the way I am using the terminology, contains one research-target, just like conventional research. However, creative researching also includes searches for information that relates to the search-target or the problem, which can include all of the following:

· Background information that relates to the search target

· Alternatives to the search target, such as alternative methods and strategies

· The structure of the search target

· The dynamics of the search target

· How the search target was created

· The history of the search target

· Any other information that relates directly or indirectly to the search target

To illustrate creative researching in a less abstract form, I will returne to the above example, the problem of inadequate house wiring, with creative researching, we will also search for a local electrician, as we would do with a conventional search strategy. However, with the creative search strategy, we would also search for related information, such as the following:

· Typical problems with house wiring

· How to repair house wiring

· How to rewire your house yourself

· How to reduce electric consumption

· How to save on electricity

· Alternatives to rewiring the house

· Home generators

· Windmill generators for the home

· Safety requirements for house wiring

The conventional search strategy offered one choice, for our problem, which was a local electrician. The creative search strategy also involves a local electrician. However, the creative search strategy offers a large number of alternative solutions to the problem. This includes learning how to rewire the house yourself, and reducing the amount of electricity that you need. The creative researching can suggest unanticipated ideas, such as in our hypothetical case purchasing a home generator, or a windmill generator, to produce some of your own electricity, which may or may not reduce the need to rewire the entire house. This idea would most likely reduce the electric bills. The creative research method also will produce a lot of extraneous information. However, sometimes extraneous information turns out to be important, which can become apparent after you have been working on your problem for a period of time.

I used a simple search target, an electrician, and a simple problem, inadequate house wiring, to illustrate the concept of creative researching. However, generally creative researching is not very appropriate for simple problems, because of the extra time and effort involved. Creative researching is especially useful for difficult problems and goals, especially when you do not know how to obtain your solution or goal. The large amount of background information that you are likely to obtain with creative searching, can suggest new solutions. This researching technique can also suggest alternatives to unattainable solutions and goals.

The best way to start your creative searching is to ask yourself questions about your search target, with the goal of creating search phrases. Generally, background information, structure, dynamics, history, of the search target would be of interest. In addition, organizations, groups, experts, technicians, books and websites dealing with the search target would also be of value.

You can start the creative search by creating a series of questions and statements that relate to your problem or goal, and use them as search terms. After you study your problem for a while you may find it productive to continue with additional creative searches.

Subtopic: What is Creative Experimenting?

Creative experimenting, involves informal experiments that are carried out in a simple and relatively quick way to see what happens, or to checkout hunches and ideas. A simple example would be testing out a new chemical, by mixing it with 100 other chemicals one at a time, without the usual precision of a chemical laboratory, just to see what happens. If an interesting reaction is seen, the experiment is repeated under carefully controlled conditions, with accurate measurements. Creative experiments allow you to quickly check your hunches, and if something interesting happens, you repeat the experiment under carefully controlled conditions.

Creative experimenting is not actually a new concept. Babies and animals appear to be engaging in creative experiments very frequently throughout the day. They appear to be constantly trying new things, throwing things, touching things to see what happens.

Creative experimenting is very similar to the trial and error process, but the goal with creative experimenting is information, especially in relation to dynamics, reactions, and final results. With the trial and error process we are trying to solve a problem or accomplish a specific goal, such as hitting a target with a dart.

The primary advantage of creative experimenting in personal problems, business, and in science and engineering, is the ability to carry out a huge number of experiments very quickly and inexpensively. Of course, when this is done you will obtain some incorrect results, but the primary idea behind creative experimenting is any time you obtain any interesting result, you repeat the experiment under controlled conditions, ideally several times. Of course, when you are risking anything significant, you should either cautiously carry out creative experimenting, or not conduct this type of experiment. With creative experiments sometimes there can be significant risks with someone's feelings, with dangerous chemical reactions, with loss of money in business, etc. These are situations where more cautious methods would probably be appropriate.

Subtopic: Creative Studyà Studying a Problem from a Number of Perspectives and Disciplines Can Lead to Creative Insights and Solutions

An effective strategy of solving problems is to study information that might lead to a solution. This can range from reading instructions to taking formal classes. This of course can be a very effective way of coming up with successful solutions to complex problems, especially when there is no apparent solution. However, this commonsense method can be refined and made more efficient, as explained in the following paragraphs.

Start by applying the simplest strategy, involving commonsense, as well as the knowledge and experience you already have, to solve the problem. Many of the problems we encounter throughout the day, and on the job, do not require anything more than the above to solve. If you can find a quick commonsense solution that works well, using more elaborate methods will probably be a waste of time and effort.

When the simplest strategy does not result in a satisfactory solution, try one or more of the following: studying some basic material, talk to some experts, conduct some informal experiments that relate to the problem. If this does not solve the problem, try more extensive study, such as reading an introductory book on the subject. If this still does not result in a satisfactory solution, try reading a number of books on the subject, and also try to consult a number of experts. If this still does not work, try to study the problem from a somewhat different angle. This can involve studying the same problem from different disciplines. For example, a problem with obesity can be studied from the perspective of general health and nutrition, physiology, biochemistry, metabolism, exercise physiology, psychology, psychiatry, etc. In addition, consulting experts from different disciplines can also be helpful. If we continue the above example of obesity, this can involve consulting your family doctor, physicians that specialize in obesity, endocrinology nutrition, exercise physiology, psychology, psychiatry, and various organizations, and self-help groups, that deal with obesity problems. All of the above should also include the trial and error process, learning and various types of experimentation, to determine what works in your individual case.

Topic: Search-and-Find-Problems & Related Concepts

Subtopic: What are Search-and-Find-Problems?

There are many types of problems that involve a search to find something, such as employment, a reasonably priced apartment, archeological remains, fossils, mineral deposits for the mining industry, such as iron, silver, and gold. I am calling this type of problem search-and-find-problems. With search-and-find-problems, random chance is an important component that determines when a solution is obtained. These problems can be divided up into three categories, which are industrial, scientific, and personal. I will focus more on the personal search-and-find-problems in this text, because they are more common. If you look at the following examples this concept will be clarified:

Industrial examples

· A mining company searching for a specific type of mineral, such as platinum, diamonds, copper, zinc

· An oil company searching for oil, natural gas, and coal

· A computer company searching for new employees that meet specific qualifications

· A charitable organization looking for volunteers

· An automobile manufacturer looking for new customers

Scientific examples

· An archeological team searching for ancient ruins

· A paleontologists searching for dinosaur fossils

· A team of physicists searching for the traces of specific subatomic particles on photographic plates

· A biochemist searching for new strains of bacteria that can possibly be used to make new antibiotics

· A zoologist looking for a rare animal species

Personal examples

· A writer looking for a publisher that is interested in his article or book

· A couple searching for a one family house that meets their needs, and is in a reasonable price range

· A student trying to find a good college or graduate school that is suitable for his needs

· An individual searching for employment

· A teenager searching for new friends, after moving to a new neighborhood

· A man or woman searching for a mate

· An animal searching for food in the wilderness

· A hunter searching for deer

Search-and-find-problems are frequently encountered. Generally, to solve these problems requires a number of different techniques and strategies, depending on the exact nature of the problem. However, many of these problems require the following 8 steps to solve:

1) Prerequisite-Activities

What must be done well before the search starts: For example, before an engineer looks for employment, he has to go to engineering school and obtain appropriate degrees and licenses.

2) Preparation just before the search

The basic tasks that are carried out just before the search: For example, an individual who is going to search for employment will prepare his resume, and obtain adequate clothing for the interviews.

3)Targeting

The relatively precise delineation of the desired entities, which will be the objective of the search: For example, an individual looking for employment will focus his search on specific types of employment, in certain newspapers, websites, employment agencies, and geographical localities.

4) Searching for possibilities

This is the actual process of searching, which involves a specific set of activities (strategies, techniques) and/or equipment that are unique to each type of search: For example, an individual looking for employment, will use one or more strategies to find potential employers, which can involve reading newspapers, driving around the city in a car, and searching for potential employers, searching on the computer, and making telephone calls to potential employers. In this case the equipment is the car, computer, telephone.

5) Testing for possibilities

When an entity is found it is evaluated to see if it is the object, or situation, that was the objective of the search: For example, when a mining company finds ore, it is tested to see if it is the type of ore that was being looked for. In addition, the chemical composition of the ore, in terms of percentages, will also be evaluated. Another example is an individual looking for employment will receive offers to take interviews, and attending such interviews involves testing for possibilities of employment.

6) Persuasion (when the search involves other people)

This involves convincing people on an intellectual and/or emotional level to do something or except something: For example, when an individual goes for an employment interview, he will generally try to persuade the interviewer that he is the right person for the job. Another example is a company trying to persuade potential customers to purchase its product, by television advertising campaigns.

7) Detailed evaluation

This involves a more detailed type of testing then step-5, to determine the true value or quality of the entity that was obtained in the search: For example, when a mining company finds high-grade ore, it might conduct further evaluations, to see if it is economically feasible to carry out a mining operation in the locality of the fined. This could involve questions such as: Is there enough ore to justify the expense of setting up a mining operation? Can we obtain permission to set up a mining operation in this locality? Another example is seen after an individual finds employment, during the first few weeks on the job, he may evaluate whether or not he wants to continue working for the company, and he may evaluate his chances of maintaining employment with his new employer.

8) Repetition of steps

This involves repeating some or all of the above steps, especially after unfruitful efforts, failures, or change in circumstances: For example, if an individual fails to find employment, he may decide that he must return to school for additional training, with the goal of resuming the job search after completing school. This involves repeating all of the above steps. Another example is an individual that is fired, may start at step-2, and start searching for employment immediately. An additional example is a mining company that failed to find any ore in a locality, may repeat the search (starting from step-2) in a different locality.

Understanding these eight steps will probably increase your chances of success with search-and-find-problems. Thus, the eight steps are discussed in detail under the following eighth subtopics.

Subtopic: Step-1 Prerequisite-Activities, In Relation to Search-and-Find-Problems

Prerequisite-activities are often the most important factor that will determine the relative degree of success, with problems in this category. With the example of the mining company, prerequisite-activities would consist of setting up the company, and related financial components, obtaining staff with appropriate skills and training, and purchasing equipment. For an individual looking for employment, prerequisite-activities can start in the first grade and continue through graduate school, but in some cases the strict focus on employment can begin when a career is planned in the late teens or adult life. This can involve taking specific college courses that relate to a specific type of employment, or the enrollment in a trade school. Prerequisite-activities for a writer can involve many years of training, and preparing articles or books that are publishable.

The important idea to keep in mind is your success with a specific type of search-and-find-problem will be greatly influenced by the quantity and quality of related prerequisite-activities. For example, the quantity and quality of your education, fits the category of prerequisite-activities. This will help you with your employment search. The above also will indirectly help you with an apartment search in New York City. That is, you need a moderately high-paying job, which usually requires substantial education, to afford the rents in the City.

In general, if you are having difficultly with any type of search-and-find-problem, evaluate the quantity and quality of the related prerequisite-activities. Some questions to ask your self in this regard, include: Was the prerequisite-activities successful? Were there any inadequacies in the prerequisite-activities that should be corrected? Is the quality and quantity of the prerequisite-activities adequate? If I return to the prerequisite-activities and make improvements, would it increase my chances with this search-and-find-problem?

Subtopic: Step-2 Preparation, In Relation to Search-and-Find-Problems

Preparation means here to prepare for your search. If you are in charge of a mining expedition, you might need to check to see that you have adequate equipment in good repair, and personnel that are prepared to travel to the locations and carry out the expedition. You will also have to obtain appropriate authorizations to travel to specific locations and conduct mining searches. If you are an individual looking for employment, your preparation might be the writing of a resume, obtaining letters of recommendation, buying new clothing for the interviews, and possibly rehearsing for the interview in your mind, or with another person. If you are a writer, the preparation will include carefully checking your articles, and making last-minute changes if required, before sending the material to potential publishers.

How can you improve your preparation, in relation to search-and-find-problems? You can improve your preparation efforts and chances of success by assessing and rehearsing the tasks you have to perform, and by dealing with your mental state, and asking yourself what did I forget? These three ideas are discussed below, but before you consider them, you should be aware of the risk of becoming excessively concerned and wasting time in your preparation efforts. That is it is usually not possible to be perfectly prepared for anything. Trying to improve preparation excessively can result in procrastination, which can prevent you from ever obtaining your objective.

Assessing and rehearsing the tasks you have to perform:

The optimum strategy in this regard might be to evaluate the tasks that have to be performed, and double checking to be certain that all reasonable efforts have been made to optimize success. For many personal challenges, such as going for employment interviews, rehearsal can be helpful. That is, the tasks that have to be performed can be rehearsed with any individual that is willing to take the role of an interviewer. Another technique that is excellent, because it is always available, is mental rehearsing. This involves imaging the situation in your mind, preferably in a relaxed state, in a quiet room if available. Imagine the dynamics and interaction that are likely to take place. As you do this you should imagine yourself responding to the situation, such as answering the questions of an interviewer. That is, in the case of a job interview, you can think of the questions that they are likely to ask you, and imagine yourself answering the questions. Evaluate your performance in your mental scenario, and try to figure out ways of improving it. When you actually start the activity that you are preparing for, such as a job interview, periodically evaluate your performance. Ask yourself, questions such as: could have I done that better and if so how?

Dealing with your mental state: Often, during the preparation period people are nervous. Learning to relax can be very helpful in this regard, and it can also be helpful in many other situations. There are many types of relaxation techniques, and it is worthwhile doing some research in your library, bookstore, and the Internet. Experiment with the different techniques to determine which techniques work best for you. The general idea with relaxation, is to relax your muscles and your breathing and think of some relaxing imagery. These techniques are only useful if they are practiced regularly. The techniques should be regularly used in anxiety provoking situations, which will greatly increase their effectiveness and utility.

Taking a realistic approach can also be helpful in dealing with your mental state. This should include an evaluation of real and imaginary risks. For example, making a mistake in a job interview will have minimal consequences, because there are many other potential employers and job interviews. In addition, the mistake might be ignored by the interviewer, because many people make errors in this regard. Of course, this does not mean that you should allow yourself to make errors, because it might in fact result in losing employment opportunities. The idea here is to keep it in perspective, and not give it exaggerated significance.

Another important way of dealing with your mental state, is to understand the probabilities involved with the situation you are dealing with, so you will not be disappointed. The idea to understand is there are many situations where it is necessary to checkout many possibilities before obtaining success. This can involve many failed attempts, before obtaining one successful situation. This applies to most of the problems discussed in this topic. For example, if you are in charge of a mining company, and you are looking for diamonds, you might have to spend months searching, and you may have to experience hundreds of unsuccessful attempts, before obtaining success. The same idea applies to a paleontologist searching for fossils; many failures, before obtaining success. More personal examples are the job interview. Often, people have to go on a huge number of job interviews, before they get a job that is satisfactory. A similar situation also applies to the mate selection process, which can involve many dates that do not go beyond a single meeting. Obtaining certain goals simply involves a huge amount of failed attempts, before success is obtained. It is easy to accept this idea, if you are searching for diamonds, or dinosaur bones, but it can be difficult, on an emotional level, when you are dealing with personal problems, such as job interviews, or the mate selection process. That is in the case of diamonds and dinosaur bones there is no rejection. In the personal situations, the individual is put into a situation where they are repeatedly rejected many times, until they finally obtain success. This process can also be quite embarrassing. Being told directly or indirectly, tactfully or on tactfully, that you are inadequate in certain respects is generally a very unpleasant experience. Sometimes this rejection is inflicted on the individual without any mercy whatsoever. Becoming aware of the type of rejection you are likely to receive, in relation to your goals, might partly protect you, at an emotional level, from these unpleasant experiences. Accepting that you will probably be rejected, many times, before you are accepted, can help prevent discouragement and depression. Dwelling on rejecting experiences, in your mind, or speaking about them to other people, can make the situation much worse in some cases. The best strategy is to just continue your search, and focus your mind on the next possibility.

Subtopic: Step-3 Targeting, In Relation to Search and Find Problems

I am using the term targeting in this text, to refer to a process of delineating realistic areas, entities, and opportunities to explore. For example, a paleontologist will not search in midtown Manhattan for fossils. He will select areas where he will be permitted to dig up soil and rock and where historical and geographical data indicates that there is a high probability of fossils. Similarly, individuals trained in secretarial work, will not focus their efforts on job openings that require no skills, janitorial experience, scientific training, or a law degree. An experienced salesperson will target customers that fit a certain profile that relate to the product that he is selling. For example, if he is selling expensive luxury products, he will focus his efforts on neighborhoods that are wealthy, but if he is selling an inexpensive product that has general utility, he will target his efforts more widely. A freelance writer will select publications that publish the type of article he has available.

This process, targeting, generally involves the creation of one or more conceptual models usually in the mind, which relates to the appropriate job, customer, publication, mate, etc. The creation of such models may be conscious or unconscious. However, regardless of whether the process is conscious or unconscious, most people have a moderately good idea of what type of employer, mate, friend, etc, would accept them.

In the case of large companies that are trying to sell their products to customers, the conceptual models that are relevant to the sales of the product, might be scientifically created and placed into a computer. Such models can be created based on the income level and purchasing history of the customer, as well as the neighborhood where the customer lives. (This information can be obtained from credit card purchases and other sources.)

How to improve your targeting, with search-and-find-problems: Targeting can be improved by improving the conceptual model that it is based on. For example, if a paleontologist can obtain better data through research, and carefully analyze the data, he could very possibly work out a better model that would increase his chances of finding fossils. The same idea can be applied to any type of search problem, including job searches. The general rule, at least theoretically speaking, is the better the models, the better the results, which can reduce frustration and rejection.

However, very often it is impossible to obtain adequate information to create a perfect model. For example, if the paleontologist carried out the ridiculous act of searching for fossils in midtown Manhattan, such as in construction sites and Central Park, he would probably eventually find at least some fossils, and probably would make other interesting discoveries that were unanticipated. Our knowledge and beliefs can sometimes result in mental models that limit our opportunities. If you apply for a job that requires formal credentials, that you do not have, you might actually obtain the job, if you have the needed skills, or something unanticipated could happen, such as the potential employer offers an alternative job. If you continuously attempt this strategy you may end up with unanticipated successes, or anticipated failures.

The best strategy is not to create one conceptual model that targets your efforts in a limited way. Instead create a number of conceptual models that will target your effort in different ways. This can involve pessimistic models that target you to opportunities that you are very likely to obtain. Optimistic models, that target you toward opportunities that are much greater, and the chances of obtaining it appears much smaller than you would prefer. Creating several realistic models that are in between these two extremes, should also be included. In addition, it is sometimes a good idea to put all of your assumptions beside, and just try a number of possibilities.

If you are dealing with a relatively small number of potential opportunities, such as a few employers or colleges in a small town, the best approach might be not to use any targeting strategies. That is, try all of the possibilities, even the very unlikely ones, which should be quite feasible because of the relatively small numbers. Often it is best to apply to all of the possibilities simultaneously. This includes the least desirable and the most desirable possibilities. Then you evaluate the acceptances and choose the one that you prefer. This is very easily done with college admission situations, because it involves mailing out applications. This strategy can be difficult when you have to appear in person, and invest time, but it still may be worth it if you are dealing with relatively small numbers of opportunities.

Subtopic: Step-4 Searching for Possibilities to Solve Search-and-Find-Problems

Searching for possibilities is the actions that are carried out in the process of searching for any entity. The actions that are carried out as part of the search process, usually involves strategies, techniques, and equipment. The success or failure of your search very often is determined by the quality of your strategies, techniques, and equipment. The duration of your searching of course is another extremely important factor. For many types of searches the amount of time invested is not related to the chances of success, but the quantity of the trials are related to the probability of success. For example, if someone mails out five letters with his resume, and another individual mails out 5000, the 5000 will probably do better on the average. However, the individual that mailed out 5000 letters did not necessarily spend more time than the individual that sent out five letters, because the letters can be produced and printed electronically from a single copy. However, sometimes the number of trials is partly or totally related to the investment in time. Another example is looking in the job section of one newspaper versus looking at ten newspapers. The individual looking at 10 newspapers will probably be investing more time. Some people are able to carry out many trials in a short period of time, and others it may take considerably longer for the same number of trials. Very often the difference between a successful job searcher and an unsuccessful job searcher is the quality and quantity of the above factors.

It is interesting to note that it takes some individuals one year to find new employment, and it takes others six weeks. However, the individual that required only six weeks may have gone on more interviews, than the individual that needed one year to find new employment.

Generally, this step (Searching for possibilities) can be greatly improved. The first way to improve it, when you are dealing with a considerable level of uncertainty, is to use many strategies, and techniques. For example, if you are searching for employment, tried to look in the newspaper, look at the Internet, post your resume on the Internet, seek assistance from employment agencies, relatives, and friends. Try direct-mail with your cover letter resume; try telephone calls, and anything else that might work for you. On the other hand, if you are an experienced job searcher, and your skills are in demand, and you are certain where to find employment, you will probably do better by focusing on one or two methods that you know will work for you. However, if you meet with failures, it is probably better to switch to multiple strategies and techniques.

Quality of the equipment that you are using in this step (Searching for possibilities) is sometimes extremely important. However, if you are searching for employment, you may be using your computer, telephone, and automobile, and in this case the quality of your equipment will probably not make any difference whatsoever in your success or failure. However, if you are involved in an industrial or scientific search the quality of your equipment is probably the most important factor.

All of this boils down to when searching for possibilities use multiple techniques and strategies and try to continuously improve them. Use the best equipment you can obtain. Engage in a large number of trials, and continue your search for an extended period of time.

Subtopic: Step-5 Testing For Possibilities to Solve Search-and-Find-Problems

Based on the way I am using the terminology, Testing is the initial evaluation procedure that is applied to determine if an entity that was found is the desired entity that was being search for. Essentially this involves the question: Did I find what I was looking for? Testing will answer this question. Some examples will clarify this idea. When someone goes for a job interview, they are testing to see if they have found an employer. During the interview the potential employer is also testing, because he is dealing with a search and find problem to obtain a new employee. Thus, during the job interview both the potential employer and potential employee are both testing. However, the potential employer usually is the individual that has control, and makes the hiring decision. When someone goes on a first date with a new individual, there is a process of testing, which can be very similar to a job interview. Another situation that is somewhat similar to a job interview is when a client is seeking assistance from a private service provider, such as a lawyer, a physician, or psychologist. This involves the client evaluating whether or not he has found a desirable service provider.

In general, a good strategy, when employing this step (testing) with people, is to invest more time to make a final decision, if feasible. Very often people make relatively quick evaluations, which may be greatly influenced by prejudicial assumptions. Evaluating people based on what they can actually do, what they will not do, and what they are willing to do, is probably a better evaluation strategy. This strategy is based on direct observation of behavior. The usual method is trying to figure out the above, based on their appearance and verbal responses, and any documentation that they submit. This method involves assumptions and guesses that may be incorrect. In a practical situation it may not be feasible to use direct observation of a large number of behavioral responses. However, incorporating some direct observation will probably provide better results than the usual techniques.

This step, (testing) of course applies to all types of search-and-find-problems. When you are dealing with industrial and scientific entities the quality of testing equipment and procedures are generally quite important. When dealing with inanimate objects, the testing procedures are probably far more accurate than the typical evaluation strategies applied to people, such as in a job interview.

Subtopic: Step-6 Persuasion to Solve Search-and-Find-Problems

Note this step only applies when a search-and-find-problem involves people or animals. Theoretically persuasion also applies to animals, which may be significant if you are a zoologist, or if you work with animals. Most personal search-and-find-problems involve people and persuasion. However, in this regard, there are a number of different types of persuasion discussed in this subtopic, which are based on the way I am using the terminology and my perspective on classification.

There are two basic types of persuasion, which are intellectual and emotional persuasion. Intellectual persuasion involves convincing someone to do what you want, by presenting information, and logical arguments. The intellectual persuasion can be focused on an object, such as a new car. In this case, the intellectual persuasion could involve explaining in a television commercial that the car is very economical with gasoline, it has many safety features, it has much storage space in the trunk, has the ability to accelerate very rapidly, and it is easy to handle under bad weather conditions. Emotional persuasion involves convincing someone to do what you want by appealing to their emotions and feelings. With the car as an example, emotional persuasion can involve a television commercial with a very attractive woman sitting in the car, a celebrity describing the car, and/or any type of imagery associated with wealth, freedom, and power. In many situations, both intellectual and emotional persuasion is used simultaneously. For example, in a television commercial for a car, information and logical arguments supporting the purchase of the car may be presented, along with the emotional persuasion of the type mentioned above.

When you are trying to obtain employment you may use intellectual persuasion to convince the employer that you have many skills, have several years of job experience, and can perform the job well because of your ability and determination. In addition, you can use emotional persuasion, by being well-dressed, presenting yourself as a friendly, kind, and caring person that is very likable, and truly needs and deserves a job. In addition, you can present yourself as an individual that will be enjoyable to work with.

In addition to the two basic categories of persuasion, (intellectual and emotional) there is intentional and inadvertent persuasion. Intentional persuasion is a deliberate act to convince someone, which can involve intellectual and/or emotional persuasion. Inadvertent persuasion is not deliberately carried out, or focused on an individual or goal. (Note, the following examples assume you are an employer.) For example, if you get to know an individual and you find he is intelligent, and skillful; you might offer him employment, because you believe you can make more profit working with him. An example of inadvertent emotional persuasion is getting to know an individual and developing a deep affection for him, which motivates you to offer him employment.

Intellectual and emotional persuasion, whether intentional or inadvertent, can be either positive (pleasant or rewarding) or negative (adverse or unpleasant) in nature. For example, people can be persuaded to do something, such as pay their taxes, by adverse intellectual persuasion. The number of smokers in the United States was reduced substantially by employing adverse intellectual and emotional persuasion. The adverse emotional persuasion involves making people aware that cigarette smoking causes them to have unpleasant odors, or implying that they are in some way weaker or less desirable than non cigarette smokers.

Inadvertent adverse intellectual persuasion is seen when an individual unintentionally conveys to others that he is a potential problem. For example, a large muscular man, with a pathologically bad temper, and a criminal history of assault, will unintentionally convey this type of persuasion (Inadvertent adverse intellectual persuasion) to everybody that knows him. People would probably be very careful what they say and do in his presence. Most people probably would try to avoid him as much as possible.

Inadvertent emotional adverse persuasion involves unintentionally conveying various negative emotional thoughts and reactions in other people.

For example, a man that is dressed like a derelict, is impolite, speaks using crude language, speaks excessively loud, mispronounces words, and makes critical statements about other people, will be inadvertently persuading people on an emotional level that he is undesirable (Inadvertent emotional adverse persuasion).

In general, it is a good idea to try to increase your positive inadvertent intellectual and emotional persuasion, by being nice to people, kind, considerate, polite, nonjudgmental, tolerant, and perhaps also well-dressed. A good strategy is to also become aware of any inadvertent adverse intellectual and emotional persuasion that you project. This awareness, will allow you to eliminate or reduce any adverse persuasion that you may be projecting.

A good strategy to avoid at all cost, is any type of persuasion that is dishonest, deceiving, illegal, or harmful, or manipulative in a way that causes others to be dissatisfied. Persuading people in a dishonest way, generally only works temporarily at best, because human beings are very intelligent, and sooner or later they are usually able to figure out any dishonest or destructive strategy inflicted on them.

Subtopic: Step-7 Detailed Evaluation to Solve Search-and-Find-Problems

Based on the way I am using the terminology, detailed evaluation, is a procedure that is carried out after it has been determined by testing, that a probable target entity was found, and further assessments are carried out to determine suitability of the target entity. For example, after the job interview (testing step-5) when you finally obtain a new job, you engage in detailed evaluation in the beginning days or weeks of the job. When this is done, sometimes the individual asks himself, why did I take this job? The assessment of the new job can obviously range from very negative to very positive. Another example, when a client finds a service provider, such as a lawyer, physician, or psychologist, and attends one or two sessions (testing step-5), he may continue his assessments (detailed evaluation) over a period of several visits to decide if he wants to remain a permanent client of the service provider. A couple that have dated one to three times (testing step-5), might decide to continue dating for further assessments (detailed evaluation).

In industrial, search-and-fine-problems, when an entity is found, detailed evaluation can be related to economic feasibility. For example, oil has been found in various parts of Alaska, but detailed evaluation suggests that it would be excessively harmful to the environment.

This step-7, detailed evaluation can generally be improved. People often make errors in this step, which can cause all types of problems. For example, most incompatible relationships could have probably been avoided, if detailed evaluation was carried out in a more thorough and effective way. The same applies to employees that are inappropriate for the job they were hired for. The same also probably would apply to relationships that were never formed, because detailed evaluation was not fully carried out, and the individuals involved arrived at early incorrect adverse assessments of each other.

Generally, detailed evaluation can be improved by becoming aware of this step, and by making an effort to consider, evaluate, and reconsider your assessments and decisions. Taking a second, third, fourth and fifth look at something, can result in better decisions. Just spending more time and effort with your detailed evaluation will improve results.

Subtopic: Step-8 Repetition of Steps to Solve Search-and-Find-Problems

This step, step-8 involves an assessment whether or not successful results were obtained, or if it will be fruitful to repeat several or all of the above steps. Keep in mind that search and find problems usually involve many trials, before success is obtained. It is often necessary to repeat one or more of the steps. Usually, it is necessary to repeat steps 3 to 8 many times over until success is obtained. (3)Targeting 4) Searching for possibilities 5) Testing for possibilities 6) Persuasion 7) Detailed evaluation 8) Repetition of steps) Step-3 or Step-4 to Step-8 generally represents one trial. When, the problem solving effort was ceased for a period of time, it is usually necessary to repeat step-2, also (Preparation just before the search). It is not unusual for people to come to the conclusion that they do not meet the requirements needed to obtain their objective, and they also repeat step-1 (Prerequisite-Activities). For example, when an individual finds that he is not properly prepared or train for college, graduate school, or a specific job, he may return to school for further training in preparation for the desired objective.

Subtopic: Do You Have To Know What You Are Looking For With Search-And-Find-Problems

Search and find problems can be broken down into two additional categories, the first is the most common type, where the search criteria is precisely defined, and the individual knows what he is looking for. The second category is where the search criteria is poorly defined, or not defined at all. This involves an individual or organization that does not necessarily know what they are searching for. There are also many types of search and find problems that are in between these two extremes. This may sound strange, but it is common in many scientific investigations. For example, when NASA launches a space probe, very often they are just collecting data, and taking photographs, of planets, asteroids or galaxies, and searching for anything that is interesting. Another example, of this type of search-and-find-problem can be seen when anybody is exploring a new environment. This is especially the case with children, but it can also be seen in teenagers and adults when they explore new social environments. This type of search and find may not be based on preplanned or deliberate behavior. It is sometimes very useful to deliberately carry out a search and find problem just to find what an environment contains or has to offer you.

Subtopic: Do the above concepts only apply to Search-And-Find-Problems. Are there Non-Search-And-Find-Problems?

In the previous subtopics we looked at search and find problems, where random chance usually is a significant factor in determining when, and if success is obtained. There is another category of problem that does not involve any searching. Perhaps this can be called a non-search-and-find-problem. These problems generally involve some type of logic to solve. Some examples are mathematics and formal logic problems, designing anything, building anything, repairing anything, learning anything. These problems can also have some degree of randomness or uncertainty associated with them, but it is not based on whether or not you find something. For example, you may try to repair your computer, but you may not be certain that you can successfully repair it.

Generally, non-search-and-find-problems involve some of the steps listed for search-and-find-problems. The steps that are common to both types of problems are listed below. The wording in the following has been changed for non-search-and-find-problems:

1) Prerequisite-Activities

What must be done well before the problem solving effort starts: For example, before an engineer can design a new car, he has to go to engineering school and obtain appropriate knowledge and skills.

2) Preparation just before the search

The basic tasks that are carried out just before the problem solving effort starts: For example, an individual that is going to bake a cake must have the ingredients and recipe on hand. To do this, he will generally have to prepare, by shopping for the ingredients, before he starts the cake recipe.

Step-2, step-3, and step-4 are not relevant to non-search-and-find-problems.

5) Testing for possibilities

Testing involves evaluations: The evaluations are used to determine whether subgoals and goals are being successfully obtained or not.

6) Persuasion (when the search involves other people)

This involves convincing people on an intellectual and/or emotional level to do something or except something: For example, convincing your boss that you deserve an increase in salary, because you obtained a better offer elsewhere. This is intellectual persuasion. Convincing your boss that you deserve a raise, because you are a kind individual, is emotional persuasion.

7) Detailed evaluation

This consists of detailed testing and/or evaluation. This is often done from a number of perspectives to see if the goal really has been obtained. For example, when a new computer program is created, it is initially tested by the computer programmers. After this initial testing, it is often released to the public in a beta version for detailed evaluation, which involves typical computers that are loaded with typical software packages, which might cause conflict with the new software.

8) Repetition of steps

This involves repeating some or all of the above steps, especially after unfruitful efforts, failures, or change in circumstances.

Very Important Topic: Problem Solving and the Writing Process for Complex Problems

Subtopic: Problems Are Often the Result of Many Factors

Most simple problems have one primary cause. However, this is not always true with complex problems. Many challenging problems, that we face in life, in industry, and in science, have complex causal relationships, involving a number of factors. This can involve one primary cause, with a large number of contributing factors. However, there are problems that may not have any primary cause that is detectable, but there may be a large number of factors that appear to be creating the problem.

It is very important to understand the above, especially when you are faced with complex problems. In this regard, asking your self the following questions can be helpful:

· Does this problem have a primary cause?

· What are all the possible primary causes to this problem?

· What are all the contributing factors to this problem?

· What are all the factors that make the problem worse?

· What are all the factors that alleviate the problem, or might alleviate the problem?

Answering these questions in writing on a computer screen can result in insightful steps to a solution, or steps to an alternative to the solution. The more writing you do in this regard the better, especially if you write multiple answers to the questions.

Very important Subtopic: A Method of Alleviating Adverse Problems, Even When the Causative Factors Are Unknown

It might be impossible to truly determine the contributing factors with absolute certainty with most complex adverse problems. Even when the causative factors can be determined with such problems, it does not follow that the adverse factors can be successfully eliminated. This is apparent with various incurable diseases, such as cancer and arthritis. Amputees are good examples where the problematic cause is apparent, but cannot be eliminated. Other examples are complex social, economic, and psychological disorders. Such problems sometimes have known causes, and even moderately apparent solutions, but no individual or group has the willingness, power, authority, or money to totally eliminate the problematic state that results.

However, it is usually quite easy to determine what factors alleviate a complex adverse problem, and what factors make it worse. This suggests a very important problem-solving strategy for complex problems, especially if you do not know the cause of the problem. The idea here is simply to employ the trial and error process, by adding factors that alleviate, or might alleviate, the problem. In addition, try to remove factors that might be worsening the problem. Carefully observe what is happening in this effort, and make appropriate corrections and improvements.

In general, anything that improves health habits is likely to alleviate many adverse problems. This includes obtaining adequate sleep, which involves the avoidance of oversleeping or under sleeping. A regular exercise program that is designed for the physiological and lifestyle needs of the individual, which involves multiple types of exercise, involving aerobics (endurance), anaerobic (resistance exercise, isometrics, weightlifting), and stretching exercises. Healthy eating habits are also very important, which should involve a diet that results in ideal body weight, and includes fruits, vegetables, dairy products, a variety of grains, meat, and fish or the equivalent protein source for vegetarians.

In addition, anything that improves an individual’s psychological state can also be helpful with alleviating problems that cannot be totally solved. This can include developing a realistic and excepting philosophy of life, perhaps with the aid of cognitive therapy, and/or with other philosophical or psychological modalities. Learning relaxation techniques, and/or self hypnosis can also be very helpful, especially for anxiety or pain that may be produced by many types of adverse problems.

In general, almost any type of self-improvement or improvement in the environment, or the overall life situation of the individual is likely to alleviate most adverse problems. This even includes making life more pleasant. This should include entertainment, and interesting activities. Especially important are activities that are pleasantly challenging. In addition, pleasant social interactions are also essential.

Subtopic: Remove the Factors that are Interfering With Your Goal, and Add Factors that are Likely to Help You With Your Goal

The method presented above for adverse problems, in a slightly different form also applies to all types of goals and problem-solving efforts. The method simply is to try to remove any factors that are interfering with your goal from your life situation, if it is feasible. In addition, any factors that might enhance problem solving efforts related to the goal should be added to your environment, or overall life situation.

There are many factors that can interfere with a specific type of problem solving effort and related goal. However, there are many general factors that have some degree of relevance to most problem and goals. These factors were discussed in the last three paragraphs of the previous subtopic. Especially important for most goal attainment efforts are good health habits, with a healthy psychological, social, and economic state. In addition, any type of improvement in your overall life situation is likely to help you obtain your goals.

In general, asking yourself the following questions can help you obtain many types of goals:

· What are all the factors that are interfering with my goal? How can I remove the interfering factors?

· What are all the factors that can help me obtain my goal? How can I add these factors to my life situation?

· Are my health habits interfering with my goal? What are all the ways that I can improve my health habits?

· Is my social and psychological state optimized for my efforts? What are all the possible ways that I can improve my social and psychological state?

· Are financial difficulties interfering with my goal attainment efforts? What are all the possible ways that I can alleviate these financial difficulties?

Section-6 How to Avoid Problems From Your Goal Attainment Efforts. Problem-Solving Can Result in More Problems

What Is Equilibrium and Disequilibrium? How Do these Concepts Relate to Problem-Solving? How Can I Avoid an Adverse Disequilibrium?

Subtopic: Introduction

Attempts to solve problems and obtained goals, can often result in more problems than you started with. This appears to happen for a number of reasons, but the proper strategies can usually prevent or minimize the development of additional problems. In this topic, and throughout this section, a number of concepts and strategies are discussed in relation to this dilemma.

Subtopic: What is Equilibrium Mean in Relation to Problem Solving?

The term equilibrium means a balanced set of factors, which can be chemical, physical, electrical, biological, psychological, social, political, etc. When a set of factors are in equilibrium there is no change in that set. For example, the population of a small town will not change if it is in equilibrium. However, other components in the town may or may not be in equilibrium, such as economic components, the availability of potential employees, the availability of jobs, etc. Thus, if one or more components of a system are in equilibrium, it does not follow that all the components are in equilibrium.

Whether a state of equilibrium is good or bad is relative to a specific point of view or goal. For example, a small town with a population in equilibrium may be a problem for business owners that want more customers. However, some residents of the small town may not want the overcrowding that would result if the population increased.

The problem solving process can sometimes involve efforts to maintain an equilibrium, which means to prevent change in a specific set of factors. Sometimes the goal is just the opposite. This can involve temporary or permanently changing a set of factors, which is discussed in the following paragraphs.

Subtopic: What is Disequilibrium, in Relation to Problem- Solving?

Based on the way I am using the term in this text, Disequilibrium is the upsetting of equilibrium. That is the disruption of a balanced set of factors, results in disequilibrium. The components that can be involved with disequilibrium include factors from chemistry, physics, electrophysics, electricity, electrochemistry, biology, biophysics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, engineering, or any other discipline.

Sometimes the problem solving process involves the creation of a controlled disequilibrium on a temporary or permanent basis. However, during the problem-solving process a set of factors that are in equilibrium, and which we do not want to change, can be inadvertently disrupted, which may result in an undesirable and/or uncontrollable change. The idea to remember, is when you are trying to solve a problem, you run the risk of causing an undesirable disequilibrium. A simple example involves replacing rotten support beams of a house. That is wooden support beams can sometimes deteriorate in an old house. The problem appears relatively simple, remove the old support beams, and install the new beams. This would work fine if the wooden beams were purely for decorative purposes, and were not supporting any weight. However, if you remove support beams temporarily, and they were supporting weight, the house might collapse. That is the attempt to solve the problem would cause disequilibrium. The proper procedure is to take corrective actions to prevent disequilibrium, which applies to many types of problems. In the case of the house with the rotten support beams, the difficulty and risk can be eliminated by installing the new support beans first, next to the old ones, which would prevent disequilibrium. An alternative method would be to provide temporary support beans before starting the repair process.

The difficulty with preventing disequilibrium, as a result of a problem-solving effort, is that it requires a detailed understanding of the system that you are dealing with. This difficulty can be minimized by thinking of the example of the house with the rotten wooden support beams. Always keep in mind: rotten support beams serve a function. That is when an undesirable component of a system is removed, you should be aware that there may be a risk of disequilibrium. Thus, it is advisable to learn how the various components of a system interact, which can indicate the preventative actions needed to prevent disequilibrium. Sometimes it is extremely difficult or impossible to totally understand all the factors and dynamics in a complex system. In such cases, the best approach in addition to the above suggestions is to carefully monitor the system during the problem solving process for signs of disequilibrium, or other adverse events. The more sensitive the monitoring procedures and/or equipment the better the results will be. This should be done with the intention of changing procedures, or taking emergency actions, if there are any indications of adverse consequences. To do this requires appropriate preparation, which can involve equipment or corrective procedures. A good example of this is seen with surgery. There usually are many instruments attached to the patient to monitor vital signs, and there are drugs, equipment and staff ready to take emergency action if necessary.

The above is quite general, because the specific factors, system and problem can be of any type. These are general principles. The idea is to try to learn how to apply them to real-life situations.

What Are Negative-Goals? How do Negative-Goals Apply to Problem Solving? How Do I Avoid Negative Goals?

What Are Negative-Goals?

Based on the way I am defining the concept a Negative-goal means a specific outcome that you want to avoid. Some examples are accidents, conflict with others, emotional problems, illness, loss of employment, damage from natural disasters, infestation by insects or rodents, theft, criminal attack, the wasting of time, money, effort, any undesirable disequilibrium. That is a negative goal is just the opposite of a goal. A goal is something you are trying to obtain, and a negative goal is something you are trying to avoid. In the problem-solving process a goal must be defined, and you have to work out a series of steps or method of obtaining it. A negative-goal also must be defined, and you have to work out a series of steps or method to avoid it. Almost everything is the same in terms of basic principles of problem-solving, with both goals and negative-goals. The problem solving process with goals can involve the expenditure of time, money and effort, study, tools, equipment, assistance from experts and others. The same is true with negative-goals.

Examples of problem solving efforts involving negative goals are common. An individual engaging in an organized exercise program to avoid medical problems is one example. Building a dam to avoid floods is another example. Designing and constructing a fireproof building is an example of a goal, constructing a building, and a negative goal, making the building fireproof to avoid the possibility of it burning down.

During the problem solving process, there are often risks of adverse consequences, as previously discussed, such as failure, excessive expenditures of time money and effort, accidents, conflict with others, etc. An example is an individual that wants to go to college. This involves risking the possibility of failure, which can result in wasted time, money, and effort. Starting a business involves similar risks, but in many cases the chances of failure is many times greater than the chances of success. Building a skyscraper involves financial risks, and the risks of construction accidents are also quite high. The point here is that the goal attainment process involves risks. In the following subtopic a strategy to deal with this dilemma is discussed

Subtopic: How to Reduce the Risks from the Problem Solving Process

You can probably reduce the risks of most goal attainment efforts, by doing all of the following: define your goal, and the steps and methods needed to obtain it. Then evaluate all the adverse outcomes that you want to avoid, in relation to your goal attainment efforts, then defined the related negative goals. For example, if you want to start a business, the goal would be to create a successful business that results in a satisfactory income. The many risks associated with starting in running a business, can be represented by the following negative-goals:

· Lack of customers, and/or excessive expenditures, resulting in business failure

· Personal financial difficulties as a result of partial total business failure,

· Family disruption as a result of financial problems and business failure (Business failures, as well as loss of employment, often results in divorce, or at the very least severe conflict within the family.)

· Stress and other psychological difficulties as a result of running a business (Running a business even if it is successful, can be extremely stressful, because often a relatively small mistake can result in significant financial problems. Business failures often lead to depression. )

After you define your goal, and related negative goals, the next step is to evaluate the probabilities in relation to the risks. To do this, ask yourself the following questions:

· What are the chances of obtaining my goal? What are all the actions I can take to increase my chances of obtaining my goal? (It appears that people often overestimate the chances of success, possibly because they are not aware of all the dynamics that can cause them to fail.)

· What are the chances of the manifestation of my negative goals? What are all the actions that I can take to reduce the chances of being inflicted with the negative-goals? If I am inflicted with one or more negative goals, what are the methods I would use to rectify the resulting hardships? (It appears that people often underestimate the chances of adverse outcomes from their goal attainment efforts. This might be the result of lack of awareness of all the dynamics that can lead to adverse outcomes.)

Topic: Interesting Examples of the Problem-Solving Process Causing New Problems, Including Disequilibrium and Other Adverse Events

Subtopic: Examining History Can Help With the Problem Solving Process

Examining history can be a very useful way of learning about problems. This can be your own personal history, or the history of any of the following: another individual that you are trying to help, your family, a specific culture, an organization, a nation, etc. It can also be the history of an entity or category of entities, such as the history of the following: the automobile, civilization, tools, democracy, war, science, chemistry, physics, engineering, technology, electronics, art, music, etc. The idea here is to examine history that relates to the problems and goals that you are interested in, and explore the following questions, by means of careful thinking, research, and any other method that provides interesting insights or useful information.

What type of problem solving strategies resulted in goal attainment and/or general improvements, in relation to the history of the entity (or category of the entities) you are studying? Did a great deal of effort and hard work help? Did a sustained effort over a long period of time, involving practice, learning, and skill development help? Did technology help?

If we look at the progress society has made over the last 200 years, we can find many interesting examples of the problem solving process causing new problems.

A good place to start is the Industrial Revolution, which was related to the goal of increasing productivity, and reducing costs of production. This is obviously a very positive goal that certainly would appear to benefit all concerned. This should mean more products, including more food for less work. It would suggest less drudgery, the reduction of heavy manual labor, and more free time to enjoy life. The goal itself was certainly obtained. Production has increased in factories and farms to tremendous levels, when compared to the period before the Industrial Revolution. However, a large number of new problems developed, including the following. Safety problems resulted from the equipment and chemicals used in production. This has been dealt with in many ways, such as legislation requiring safety standards, and lawsuits. However, the problem has not been totally eliminated, and there are lawsuits in this regard to the present day.

Another problem that resulted was a shortage of jobs, because employers can produce more products with fewer workers. This problem has of course been dealt with in various ways. However, it has never been solved, and it has been made worse in certain ways by other problem solving efforts, discussed in the following paragraphs.

One of the major problems of civilization appears to be prejudicial discrimination against various cultures, subcultures, races, social classes, religions, and almost any classification of human beings that existed. You can find varying degrees and focus of discrimination throughout history. Prejudicial discrimination causes many problems in society, as well as for the victims of discrimination.

One problem is economic, because the many individuals that are subjects of discrimination were partly restricted from the general workforce of society. In modern times, we have dealt with this problem, and have made a considerable level of progress, especially in relation to various minority groups, black people, and women. This increased the available workforce considerably, but the economic system, industry and the available jobs did not expand adequately. In addition, technology has continued to develop beyond what was originally possible during the Industrial Revolution. The available jobs were reduced further by developments in computer technology and telecommunication, where many types of jobs are outsourced to other countries.

In a sense, all of the above is an example of excellent problem solving. We reduced the amount of work needed for food, shelter, and the various items we live with, such as furniture, computers, TV sets, calculators, cameras, radios, cars, etc. That is there is less work to do. However, this successful problem solving effort has made the employment problem worse than it would have been otherwise. There are too many workers available, and not enough jobs. In theory, there are two possible ways that this problem could have been prevented. One way would have been to estimate the increase in the number of available workers in advance, and increase the number of available jobs, by expanding industry accordingly. Ideally this would involve slightly more job slots then the number of available workers, as a safety margin. Another solution, would be to decrease the number of hours people work each day, which would in theory provide more job openings. The ideal would be to use both methods, assisted by the trial and error process.

The point is all of the above problems could have been easily anticipated, and prevented or minimized. From the perspective of the concept of negative goals, excessive workers and unemployment could have easily been foreseen, and easily prevented. Of course, societies and economic systems are controlled by complex political and cultural dynamics, which interact in very complex ways, and often produce results that nobody intended.

There is another general principle apparent in the above paragraph, which is when you have a large system of people the net result of their action is not necessarily desired by anyone. In addition, the result is not necessarily controlled by anyone either. The simplest example is seen when a crowded restaurant, nightclub or theater catches fire, and everybody tries to leave the premises as quickly as possible. By itself, this is logical and desirable behavior. However, the net effect of their simultaneous actions usually causes an interaction (collisions with each other,) which often clogs the doorway. As a result, many individuals are trampled, and many people do not get out quick enough to escape the fire. If we look at this from the perspective of negative and positive goals, we see the desirable goal of escaping from the fire, and undesirable negative goal of clogging the doorway. The negative goal could be avoided in theory if each individual delayed his or her escape long enough to allow the people in front of them to move toward the door. Another simple example of a system of people producing an unintentional adverse result is seen with automobile accidents, traffic jams that involve gridlock, and air pollution. Each individual is acting logical, rational, constructively, and trying to deal with their problems and goals, but the net result is destructive. Understanding this, and all of the above, can sometimes reduce or eliminate the negative or destructive results, which I defined as a negative goal.

Section-7: Solving Problems with the Writing Process

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Topic: Solving Problems with Writing

Subtopic: Introduction from the Perspective of Writing

Note, some of the ideas, and methods in this section were already presented in other parts of the book, but they are explained here from the perspective of writing.

In this section I will present a number of ways that writing can be used with the problem solving process.

I have found that writing is the most valuable problem solving method, and the computer is the most valuable problem solving tool, especially when it is used to create and transmit documents. In this section some additional ideas and difficulties involved with problem solving and writing will also be discussed. The following subtopic deals with an interesting difficulty that can limit the effectiveness and versatility of writing as a communication methodology.

Subtopic: The Problem of Document Style Restricting Information and Interfering With Comprehension

Very often, our goal attainment efforts involve the presentation of information, and related arguments, for one or more organizations or individuals. This can involve efforts to obtain grants, employment, customers, a contract, permission to carry out a procedure, etc. If the information that you have to explain is long and complex, you have a challenging task. This task can sometimes be made more difficult or impossible if you follow a specific document style. The logical solution to this problem is simple. Create a document style that will optimally assist with your specific communication challenge. However, from a cultural perspective this can sometimes cause problems, because many people and organizations believe that there is only one correct document style. The best example in this regard is the Resume and cover letter.

For the sake of simplicity, I am using the words traditional style or restrictive style, when referring to documents that are restricted to a specific style, by cultural beliefs of an individual or organization.

Many document styles encourage brevity, which is functional when there is not much information to convey, and the arguments are simple or not required. If you are the boss, or in some other power position, it may be unnecessary to explain why something is required. This is especially the case when writing instruction or orders for individuals that are neither experts nor technicians. However, if you are an employee and you are requesting anything unusual, you may have to provide persuasive arguments. The same applies to grant proposals, feasibility studies, and many other types of documents. If you are dealing with complex technical or scientific information, and the people that will be reading your documents are not experts, you will have an even greater challenge.

If we use the resume and cover letter as an example once again, the dysfunction might be apparent if you are familiar with various restrictive styles that are often used for these types of documents. Hiring someone is a major decision, and often the major qualifications of an individual applying for a job are apparent, even without a resume. For example, if you are advertising to obtain a full-time staff lawyer, you are aware that all legitimate applicants attended law school, and have a law degree. You also may be aware of most of the other information on the resume. Often, people are hired for their individual characteristics, and qualities that may not be presented in a traditional resume and cover letter. The job interview may or may not reveal the important information that was not in the resume or cover letter. This is not a good communications strategy because it unnecessarily involves random chance. The same general idea applies to many of the traditional styles of writing documents. That is the restrictive document style excludes or limits the most important information. However, if the information that you are presenting fits into a traditional document style, without leaving out essential information, you are not dealing with a dysfunction.

There are often two choices when writing a document, such as a grant proposal, a resume and cover letter, a report, or any type of letter. The first choice is to try to fit the information you have into a traditional document style that will be perceived as proper or appropriate to your readers. The second choice is to create a nontraditional document that provides all the information that needs to be conveyed, with an emphasis on readability. In complex situations, if you use any restrictive document style, you may fail to obtain your goal, be it a grant, a job, or whatever. On the other hand, if you create your own styles, or use any type of a nontraditional style, you run the risk of an adverse response, solely based on the style of the document. This can also result in a failure to obtain your goal in some cases. The best way to deal with this dilemma is to first create a rough draft that contains all the relevant information you want to convey. Once you have this information clearly organized, you should try to see if it can be squeezed into a traditional document format that is perceived by your readers as appropriate and correct. If this cannot be done, the next step is to evaluate the relative degree of importance of the information that would be lost if you use the traditional format. If your assessment indicates that there will be very little loss of information, you are probably best off using the traditional document format. However, if using the traditional format will result in the exclusion of information that is important to your goal, you might be better off using a nontraditional format.

When you use a nontraditional format, it is often a good idea to indicate on the document, or by some other means, that you are deliberately using an unusual format. If this is not done, the people that see your work might think that the style you created is the result of ignorance. That is they may think that you do not know how to write the traditional document style, which they perceived to be the only correct style.

Alternatively, you might be able to convey the information that does not fit into a conventional format, by some other means. For example, if you have a number of hobbies and personal experiences, which is relevant to the job you are applying for, you can convey this information in the interview, or in a separate letter.

The important idea to keep in mind is: in some situations it might be important to conform to the traditional style requirements. However, there are also situations where the document style is not important. Often, there is a style that is perceived as proper, but presenting a nontraditional style will not have any adverse consequences. For example, if you are hiring experts to assist you, the documents you present to them can be based on your own style, but it should be highly readable. In each situation, you have to gather information, and make the best evaluation that is possible. Often this can involve the trial and error process. However, with some individuals and organizations you do not have a second chance. This is very often the case with attempts to obtain employment and grants.

Subtopic: When Considering Document Style, or Anything Else, Consider Your Power Position

A useful strategy when deciding your document style is to consider the relative power position of yourself and the people you are communicating with. If you are the CEO or the boss of a small business, you are generally in a higher power position than your employees, and your suppliers of goods and services. In such cases, you do not have to worry about the document style that you use, is long as it conveys all the needed information in a highly readable format. Just the opposite is the case when you are in a lower our position than the people you are communicating with.

There is a general principle here that is not limited to writing. The idea is to always consider the relative degree of power in relation to the people you are dealing with. When you are in a higher power position you have a greater opportunity to experiment with your communication style. In addition, when you are in a higher power position, you have a better opportunity to negotiate for whatever you are seeking. Just the opposite is the case when you are in the lower power position.

You can raise your power position, by increasing the number of choices that you have available. For example, if you have relatively poor job searching skills, you will have relatively few job opportunities. When you obtain an employment interview or employment, you might have to except the terms that are offered by your employer. However, if you have excellent job search skills, if you do not like what your employer is offering, you will have the opportunity to obtain employment elsewhere.

Subtopic: A Very Useful Way of Writing Complex Documents, Such As Reports

A nontraditional document style that I found to be very useful is explained in this subtopic. The following paragraphs delineate all the features of this document style.

All the vital information, including any request, is presented on the first page, in a summary. When this is properly carried out the reader may not have to read more than one page. In certain cases this might require two pages, but generally the idea is to summarize everything in a single page. The pages that follow contain supporting arguments and data for the information on the first page. The most important, supporting concepts and arguments are presented first, followed sequentially by less important, and still less important, arguments and data. This often involves presenting the bottom line or conclusion first, followed by the arguments that led to the conclusion. All of the information and related arguments in the document are placed under descriptive headings, which are underlined and/or written in bold or large type. When this is properly done, the headings will provide a summary of the information under the heading. This will allow the reader to skip portions of the document that he is not interested in.

One of the biggest advantages of this type of format, is your document can contain a large number of pages, without burdening the reader. If the document is properly written, the reader only has to read the first page. If the reader wants additional information, he can quickly look through the headings, without reading the entire document.

When presenting complex documents of the type mentioned above, the effectiveness of the information and arguments can be improved greatly by having periodic discussions with the readers. Of course this is not always feasible, but when it is these discussions should start before the document is submitted, and continue after the document was submitted. Submitting short letters explaining important information and arguments can be done before the lengthy document is submitted. This will also increase the effectiveness of the information and arguments presented in the lengthy document.

The nontraditional document style discussed above should be useful for grant proposals, feasibility studies, environmental impact statements, reports explaining accidents, advertising of industrial equipment, and possibly as a substitute for the traditional resume and cover letter. This format is very roughly similar to the way experimental results and conclusions are presented, but there are also some significant differences. Thus, this format can possibly be used for such purposes, but each scientific journal has its own style requirements.

Subtopic: Communicating with Experts with Writing

Complex problems often require one or more experts, or technicians to solve. Most industrial problems require a large number of experts and technicians. To communicate with experts and technicians effectively often requires written language describing problems and goals. Even personal problems that require experts or technicians can often be solved more effectively, if written descriptions are provided. This can even be used with malfunctioning automobiles and medical problems. Another example is technical problems with computer equipment, sometimes must be explained in an e-mail to technical support. Often, there is little or no choice with computers, because some companies will not provide information any other way.

When describing a problem for an expert or technician, it is generally advisable to provide all the relevant information, but to be as brief as possible. They may be some exceptions to this. Sometimes in industry detailed engineering reports are required for a specific team of experts. You always must evaluate the individual situation to determine what is needed. However, in most cases, where informal written explanations are likely to be helpful to an expert or technician, brevity is important. To achieve this, ask yourself: what information do they need to help me solve my problem? As you think of ideas, ask yourself: do they need this information? Will this information help them understand the problem, or will it confuse them?

It is usually a good idea to try to leave out confusing information, if possible. For example, if you received three medical opinions about your condition and you are certain that two of these opinions are definitely incorrect, you have two alternatives. One is to provide all three opinions, and explain why two of them are incorrect. This could take several pages, and it can be very difficult to present good explanatory arguments in this regard. The other alternative is to leave out the incorrect opinions. When dealing with experts or technicians, keep in mind, if information you omitted turns out to be relevant, you can always provide it at a later point in time, orally or in written language.

Using headings can be quite helpful. This involves a few lines of text under each heading, describing an aspect of the problem. At the end of this paragraph there is an example, but the specific format is one of many possibilities. The best format depends on the specific situation. Sometimes it is more convenient and effective to just write about a problem as if you were talking about it. In such a case, appropriate headings can be added after if it enhances the document.

The following are good examples of headings that can be used for many types of problems. (Note, I am using a computer with a malfunction, and a medical problem as examples in the following.)

A Description of the System

This is sometimes self-evident, but not always. For example, the type of computer is probably self-evident, but it can be a desktop, a Macintosh, a server, a mainframe computer, a supercomputer, etc. However, the model number and make of the computer might not be self-evident, especially if you are obtaining technical assistance with the telephone or with e-mail. In the case of a medical problem, the type of system will generally be apparent, which is man, woman, boy or girl.

The History of the Problem

If the problem is a technical problem, such as with a computer, the history would consist of everything you already tried, in your efforts to correct the problem. The technician would need this information to rule out possible causes for the problem. For medical conditions, a delineation of previous diagnoses and treatments would be helpful for the physician. This can include medication and procedures that fail to provide relief, and remedies that provided improvements in the condition.

A Description of the Problem

For the computer problem a description of the precise nature of the difficulty is helpful. For the medical problem, a description of specific symptoms is important. This can include the relative degree of severity of the symptoms.

(Note, there are many other headings that can be helpful in a specific set of circumstances, but the above are often very useful.)

Generally, it’s a good idea to try to elicit feedback to determine if you provided the needed information, to be certain that your document was read, and to see if the information was understood. The feedback is also important to determine if the expert or technician is able and willing to help you. In this regard, the attitude and emotional responses can also be important, and if they are adverse, it is often best to obtain assistance elsewhere.

To elicit feedback you can orally ask questions that relate to your needs and problem. Generally, it is a good idea to try to elicit some feedback with a statement at the end of your letter. Such as: if you need any additional information please contact me. However, experts and technicians will usually ask you for any additional information that they need regardless of what you stated or failed to state in your document.

Subtopic: Obtaining Funding to Solve your problem, with the writing process

There are many different types of funding programs. These funding sources can be divided into three general categories, which are privately sponsored, government sponsored, and employer sponsored. The type of documentation required varies from one agency to another and from one type of problem to another. For situations involving an individual seeking personal assistance, such as for college funding, a simple application must be filled out, and personal documents might be requested to confirm your identity and eligibility. However, there are many situations where detailed written explanations are required to obtain funding. This is likely to be the case, with competitive scholarship grants, research funding, and funding for programs by organizations.

A useful way of writing a grant proposal is to use the method described above, under the sub topic of: A Very Useful Way of Writing Complex Documents, Such As Reports. For other ideas, and additional information about writing grant proposals consult the following websites:

http://www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeId=102

http://www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeId=1730

Subtopic: Arguing Your Case with Writing

Subtopic: Introduction

There are many problems that can involve an argumentative process, such as lawsuits, denial of services or payment from an insurance company, and any type of appeals process. Even if you have a lawyer, presenting your arguments and other significant information in writing will probably increase the chances of winning your case. When you have complex arguments, your lawyer may not totally understand the material, unless it is presented in written language. A lawyer might provide some written documents generally speaking, but if you do not present your arguments, to him, his arguments will be far from optimum. Of course, if you are working with a lawyer, anything you write should be reviewed by your lawyer, before you submit it.

There are many situations where a lawyer is not required or needed, but good arguments are required to solve a problem. This can involve any request, or denial of a prior request, that does not necessarily involve legal issues. Requests for funding very often are good examples in this regard, and they may require complex persuasive arguments.

Subtopic: Six Components that can be Presented in Written Language to Optimize Your Chances in Negotiations, and Winning Your case

There are six components, explained below, that can be used in presenting arguments and statements in written language to win a case, obtain an agreement or contract.

1. The first is logical arguments, based on evidence and factual information. This is discussed in a separate subtopic, which follows this one.

2. The second method is promises and agreements, which may not involve any evidence. An example is almost any contract or agreement, including borrowing money, with the promise to pay it back within a certain time.

3. The third component is emotional persuasion, which can reinforce all of the above.

4. The fourth component is providing rewards in exchange for what you want to obtain that comply with the law. This can involve an exchange of money, goods, or services. For example, when a contract is negotiated, the exchange of money, goods or services will usually be involved. All the components mentioned above can sometimes reinforce such negotiations.

5. The fifth component is sanctions that comply with the law. For example, if credit card bills are not paid, you will receive sanctions against you, such as late fees, and a poor credit rating. Sanctions can also involve emotional components. For example, if you are dissatisfied or angry about the merchandise you received, the store manager might be concerned, and return your money, even if he is not required to do so according to the law.

6. Beliefs: what you and others believe can sometimes be quite important in winning a case, or in negotiations. At other times beliefs may be of little value, especially if the components mentioned above are not included in your document. Some examples, where beliefs might be significant are as follows: If a potential employer falsely believes that you are dishonest, or incapable of carrying out the essential duties of the job, you will not be hired, in spite of the fact that the belief is incorrect. If you believe that you are being treated unfairly in a specific way, informing the individual or organization involved, can sometimes be adequate in rectifying the problem. The parties involved sometimes treat beliefs almost like evidence, especially in situations that are similar to the above example. The reason for this is most people are aware that beliefs regardless if they are justified or not, can lead to conflict, loss of business, or a lawsuit. In addition, if you truly believe that you can perform a task, or achieve a goal, other people may be willing to support you in your effort partly or totally based on your beliefs. Of course, this is only true sometimes. If you go to a bank, and request a ten million dollar loan, based on your belief in your ability to successfully start a business and make a fortune, you probably would not obtain the loan. However, if you requested $500, based on a more realistic leaf belief you would probably obtain the loan.

All of the above can be expressed in written language, but it is always a good idea to reinforce your writing with face-to-face communications or telephone conversations. Very often this should involve a series of conversations over a period of time.

The best way to present such information may vary from one situation to another, because of specific requirements can vary from one organization to another. However, a highly effective way of presenting information of this nature was already presented in the Subtopic: A Very Useful Way of Writing Complex Documents, Such As Reports.

Subtopic: What is a Good Argument, from the Perspective of Real World Problem Solving

From the perspective of real world problem solving a good argument contains the following three elements:

1. Supporting evidence in terms of entities that can be examined by others, or information that is perceived as factual: For example, collateral to obtain a loan is an entity (such as a house) that can be examined by others, to confirm its existence and value. An example of information that is perceived as factual is often seen in the insurance industry. Such information might be presented when there is loss of property as a result of fire, or when there is employment related accidents or illness. Often, information of this nature may be perceived as factual by only one party.

2. Statements in a document referring to the supporting evidence: This should involve convincing information that supports the existence of the evidence. For example, a damaged sidewalk can be evidence in an accident case, but it is necessary to show the exact location of the damage sidewalk, so it can be examined. This can also involve photographs, and related statements explaining its location and the severity of the damage. However presenting supporting evidence does not represent an argument, no matter how compelling the evidence may be. The damage sidewalk could have a hole that is 3 ft, deep, but explaining this by itself is not an argument. This is explained below.

3. Argumentative statements explain how the evidence caused something, or will probably cause some thing to happen. This must be coupled with a concluding statement indicating your point of view, and what you want: A good argument explains what the evidence represents, and how the evidence supports or proves your statements in your document. The evidence and related arguments is used to support or justify your request. If we returned to the above example of a damage sidewalk that caused an accident, the argument must show that the accident actually resulted because the sidewalk was damaged. This ideally should illustrate that the accident would not have occurred if the sidewalk was repaired. Ideally the argument should explain how the sidewalk led to the accident, in terms of cause and effect sequences. Ideally, all the dynamics and related information should be easily understandable, which may not always be possible.

In general, it is usually advisable to present multiple arguments supporting your case or requests. Usually, the more valid arguments you present the better. Presenting the most important argument first, followed sequentially by less important arguments is probably the best strategy. In addition, arguments that are presented in writing should be reinforced with verbal conversations if possible. This allows the opportunity to be certain that your arguments are understood by the relevant parties.

You should be cautious that your statements and arguments convey a message that is true, and will most likely be perceived as true by the readers. Statements or arguments that convey a counterproductive message should be either removed, or modified so that they strengthen your case. Arguments or events that are related to each other, and are likely to occur simultaneously or sequentially will probably strengthen your overall message. For example, a description of sequences that resulted in an automobile accident, consisting of the following appears to be believable:

· Physically ill driver was deprived of sleep, and driving under poor whether conditions, during a foggy night, collided with a concrete barrier, which was accidentally placed on the rode by a construction crew

Arguments, or events, that are not related to each other, or are not likely to occur simultaneously or sequentially, might convey a less convincing message. A message of this type might be judged as phony by the readers. The idea here is to arrange your arguments, information, facts, and words so they convey an honest and convincing message. That is, a message that is convincing on an intellectual and emotional level.

Topic: Creating a Problem-Solving-Plan in Written Language

Based on the way I am using the terminology, a problem solving plan, is a plan that is created with the use of written language, to solve a problem or obtain a goal. The problem solving plan delineates what is needed to obtain a goal or solution. This includes the procedures, steps, and the actions that are needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal. This can include where and how you are going to obtain funding for the problem. It can also include the materials, and equipment that you need to purchase, and the experts and technicians that must be consulted to solve the problem. It can include the material you have to study, the skills you have to develop, and the skills you have to practice, to solve the problem. A problem solving plan might begin with a detailed delineation of the problem and solution, or goal, which is followed by a detailed description of how to obtain the objective.

The plans of course will be very different for each problem. For a simple problem, the entire plan can often be done quite well in the mind, without the use of written language. This might even be the case with some complex problems, especially if it is a personal problem or goal, as opposed to an industrial or scientific problem where a number of individuals are working on the project. However, when time permits, there are often advantages in delineating plans in written language, because it allows you to detect deficiencies in your plan, which gives you the opportunity to make corrections, which will prevent failures. A plan of this nature can sometimes help you obtain funding from various agencies. It can be used to communicate with experts and technicians.

The best way to create a plan is to write it on a computer with word processor software. When this is done, a number of different documents can be created by modifying some of the wording on the plan. That is by adding some additional wording, and/or removing some wording, documents for funding can be obtained (grant proposals). Documents to explain the problem to experts can also be obtained by the same process. This same process can be used to create many different types of documents that are required to solve the problem. However, sometimes it is easier and more efficient to write out some or all of the documents from scratch, as opposed to creating them by editing the document that contains the plan.

A problem solving plan can be fairly precise when you know just about all of the steps and details needed to solve a problem. This might be the case, if you are building something, such as a closet, a house, or a skyscraper. However, there are many situations where we are dealing with a considerable degree of uncertainty. We may not be sure if we could obtain all the funding that is required to solve a problem. We may be relying on the way other people are going to respond to our efforts, requests, hopes and dreams, which is true of many personal problems. When there is a moderate degree of uncertainty, especially if you are not completely sure that your plans will actually solve the problem, you should create what I call a feedback-corrected problem-solving-plan.

A feedback-corrected problem-solving-plan is a plan that is designed to deal with uncertainties. This type of plan is periodically changed or corrected in various ways, to deal with new information, failures, success, and any other positive and negative situation, that relates to a problem solving effort. Plans of this nature should be created with word processor software, on a computer screen, so it can easily be updated. This type of problem solving plan can have alternatives, for the various steps, or subgoals that involve a considerable degree of uncertainty. This can include alternative sources of funding, and alternative ways of solving the problem that are less expensive, if adequate funding cannot be obtained.

In general, a plan of this nature can be easily modified, based on the trial and error process. It can contain many alternatives, including alternative solutions and goals, if the primary objective cannot be obtained.

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[1] Some of this model was derived by examining Darwin’s theory of evolution. I even used some of his terminology in this model.